THE (IL)LEGALITY OF THE USE OF AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS SYSTEMS UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW

Authors

Keywords:

Autonomous Weapon Systems, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Human Rights, International Humanitarian Law, Additional Protocol I, Illegality

Abstract

Considering the increasing digitization of human life, armed conflicts are not to be left out. Thus, this text aims to discuss the (il)legality of the use of autonomous weapons systems in international law. This is because the use of this system has been increasingly recurrent since it is completely autonomous, therefore, allowing targets to be chosen and targeted without the displacement of human contingent. And it is precisely because they are guided by algorithmic codes and not by a “human conscience” that problems regarding the application of the rules of international law, notably those of human rights and humanitarian law, can emerge, being the hypothesis that guides this study that such weapons violate these normative precepts. Therefore, an inductive study is carried out using the French plan, opting for the descriptive-explanatory analysis method and the bibliographic and documentary techniques, in which the implications of the use of autonomous weapons in both International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law are explored, concluding, in the end, to a large extent, that its use is illegal.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Tatiana Cardoso Squeff, Federal University of Uberlândia - UFU

Pós-doutoranda em Direito pela Universidade de Vitória – FDV. Doutora em Direito Internacional pela UFRGS, com período sanduíche junto à University of Ottawa. Mestre em Direito Público pela UNISINOS, período de estudos junto à University of Toronto, com bolsa CAPES/DFAIT. Professora de Direito Internacional da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), na graduação e no Mestrado em Direito. Professora do Mestrado em Relações Internacionais da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Expert brasileira junto à HCCH. Membro da ILA-Brasil, ABRI e ASADIP.

Antônio Teixeira Junqueira Neto, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU)

Mestrando e Bacharel em Relações Internacionais pela Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU); Pesquisador do Grupo de Estudos e Pesquisa em Direito Internacional – GEPDI/UFU. Voluntário da Clínica de atendimento a migrantes – AJESIR/UFU.

Augusto Guimarães Carrijo, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia - UFU

Graduando em Direito, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU); Pesquisador no Grupo de Estudos e Pesquisa em Direito Internacional – GEPDI/UFU e no Grupo Direito Internacional Crítico – DICRI/UFU. Foi bolsista CAPES de Iniciação científica e é atualmente bolsista FAPEMIG da Rede de Processo Civil Internacional – UFU/UnB.

Willy Ernandes Costa Batista, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU)

Graduando em Relações Internacionais pela Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU); Pesquisador do Grupo de Estudos e Pesquisa em Direito Internacional – GEPDI/UFU. Extensionista da Clínica de atendimento a migrantes – AJESIR/UFU.

References

AIR FORCE JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL’S DEPARTMENT. Air Force Operations and the Law: A Guide for Air and Space Forces. Estados Unidos: International and Operations Law Division, 1 ed., 2002.

ASARO, P. On banning autonomous weapon systems: human rights, automation, and the dehumanization of lethal decision-making. International Review of the Red Cross, v. 94, n. 886, p. 701 et seq., 2012. Disponível em: https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/VIEW/992565190BF2912AFC5AC0657AFECF07/S1816383112000768A.pdf/on_banning_autonomous_weapon_systems_human_rights_automation_and_the_dehumanization_of_lethal_decisionmaking.pdf. Acesso em: 9 dez. 2020.

ATHERON, Kesley. Understanding the errors introduced by military AI applications. Tech Stream, 6 mai. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/understanding-the-errors-introduced-by-military-ai-applications/. Acesso em: 20 dez. 2022.

BOBLLIER, Sphie. Autonomous Weapon Systems. CICV, s/d. Dsiponível em: https://casebook.icrc.org/case-study/autonomous-weapon-systems. Acesso em: 8 out. 2021.

BOTHE, Michael. New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2013.

CARDOSO, Tatiana de A. F. R. Os efeitos do uso de aeronaves não tripuladas nas Relações Internacionais. Caderno De Relações Internacionais, v. 6, n. 11, pp. 89-111, 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22293/2179-1376.v6i11.179

CARRIJO, Augusto; SQUEFF, Tatiana Cardoso. Ataques direcionados às fontes de mídia durante conflitos armados: uma análise do bombardeamento da estação RTS na Ex-Iugoslávia consoante o Direito Internacional Humanitário. In: TEIXEIRA, Carla N.; DEL'OLMO, Florisbal de S.; CARMO, Valter Moura do. Direito Internacional II. Florianópolis: CONPEDI, 2021, pp. 101-121

CICV. A guide to the legal review of the new weapons, means and methods of warfare: measures to implement article 36 of additional protocol I of 19977. Genebra, 2006, p. 17. Disponível em: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0902.pdf. Acesso em 5 dez. 2020.

CICV. Commentary on the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions: Commentary on the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions, [S. l.], 1987. Disponível em: https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/Commentary_GC_Protocols.pdf. Acesso em: 8 out. 2021.

CICV. Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. 8 jun. 1977. Disponível em: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0321.pdf. Acesso em: 30 set. 2020

CICV. Military necessity. s/d. Disponível em: https://casebook.icrc.org/glossary/military-necessity. Acesso em: 17 fev. 2023.

CICV. Martens Clause. s/d. Disponível em: https://casebook.icrc.org/glossary/martens-clause. Acesso em: 15 fev. 2023.

CICV. Princípios Fundamentais do Movimento Internacional da Cruz Vermelha e do Crescente Vermelho. Genebra, 04 ago. 2017. Disponível em: https://www.icrc.org/pt/document/principios-fundamentais-do-movimento-internacional-da-cruz-vermelha-e-do-crescente-vermelho. Acesso em: 15 fev. 2023.

CICV. Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons (Protocol III). Genebra, 10 out. 1980. Disponível em: https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/atrocity-crimes/Doc.41_CCW%20P-III.pdf. Acesso em: 08 dez. 2020.

COMISS O DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL. Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. 2001. Disponível em: https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft_articles/9_6_2001.pdf. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2022.

COMMITTEE ESTABLISHED TO REVIEW THE NATO BOMBING CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA. Final Report to the Prosecutor. 2001. Disponível em: https://www.icty.org/en/press/final-report-prosecutor-committee-established-review-nato-bombing-campaign-against-federal. Acesso em: 15 fev. 2023.

DAVISON, Neil. A legal perspective: Autonomous weapon systems under international humanitarian law. UNODA Occasional Papers: Perspectives on Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems, v. 30, p. 5-18, 2017.

FENRICK, W. J. Targeting and Proportionality during the NATO Bombing Campaign against Yugoslavia. European Journal of International Law, v. 12, n. 3, pp. 489-502, 2001.

GARDAM, Judith. Necessity, Proportionality and the Use of Force by States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004

GREENWOOD, Christopher. Customary International Law and the First Geneva Protocol of 1977 in the Gulf Conflict. In: ROWE Peter, The Gulf War 1990-91 in International and English Law. Abingdon: Routledge, 1993.

GUERRA, Sidney. Direitos Humanos: Na Ordem Jurídica Internacional e Reflexos na Ordem Constitucional Brasileira. São Paulo: Atlas, 2014, p. 15.

HAIDER, Andre. Autonomous Weapon Systems in International Humanitarian Law. The Journal of the JAPCC, v. 27, p. 46-50, 2018

HEYNS, C. Increasingly autonomous weapon systems: Accountability and responsibility. In: Comitê Internacional da Cruz Vermelha. Autonomous Weapon Systems Technical, Military, Legal and Humanitarian Aspects, Genebra, mar. 2014, p. 46. Disponível em: 4221_Autonomous_W_SystemCover_5mm.indd (reliefweb.int). Acesso em: 20 dez. 2020.

HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE. General Comment no. 35, para. 9. 2014. Disponível em: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/786613. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2020.

HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE. General Comment No. 36, para. 65. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.refworld.org/docid/5e5e75e04.html. Acesso em: 15 dez. 2020.

HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH; DOCHERTY, Bonnie. Losing Humanity: The Case against Killer Robots. Nova Iorque: Human Rights Watch, 2012.

ICJ. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I).

ICJ. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo). Judgment, 30 November 2010.

ICJ. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004,

ICTY. Prosecutor v. Stanislav Galic, Case No. IT-98-29-T, Judgment and Opinion, December 5, 2003 §58. Disponível em: http://www.icty.org/x/cases/galic/tjug/en/gal-tj031205e.pdf. Acesso em: 08 dez. 2020.

ICRC. Customary International Humanitarian Law. Vol. I: Rules. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009

KAJANDER, A. et al. Making the Cyber Mercenary – Autonomous Weapons Systems and Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions. 12th International Conference on Cyber Conflict. 2020. Disponível em: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9131722. Acesso em 10 dez. 2020.

KLARE, Michael T. Autonomous Weapons Systems and the Laws of War. Arms Control Association, mar. 2019. Disponível em: https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2019-03/features/autonomous-weapons-systems-laws-war. Acesso em: 19 fev. 2023

KRISHNAN, Armin. Killer Robots: Legality and Ethicality of Autonomous Weapons. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2009

LEITE, A. J. M.; MAXIMIANO, V. A. Z. Pacto Internacional dos Direitos Civis e Políticos. Procuradoria Geral do Estado de São Paulo. Disponível em: http://www.pge.sp.gov.br/centrodeestudos/bibliotecavirtual/direitos/tratado5.htm. Acesso em: 15 nov. 2020.

MELZER, Nils. International Humanitarian Law: A comprehensive Introduction. Genebra: International Committee of the Red Cross, 2019.

MERON. Theodor. The Martens Clause, Principles of Humanity, and Dictates of Public Conscience. American journal of International Law, v. 94, n. 1, pp. 78-89, jan. 2000. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2555232

MORRISON, Beth. The Lawful Killing of Civilians Under International Humanitarian Law. E-International Relations, 27 mai. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.e-ir.info/2022/05/27/the-lawful-killing-of-civilians-under-international-humanitarian-law/. Acesso em: 20 dez. 2022.

NA ONU, ativistas reforçam campanha contra “robôs assassinos” apoiada pelo Brasil. ONU News, Genebra, 21 out. 2019. Disponível em: https://news.un.org/pt/story/2019/10/1691641. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2020.

NEWSDESK. Analyzing the development of autonomous weapons. The Global Village, 28 jan. 2023. Disponível em: https://www.globalvillagespace.com/development-of-autonomous-weapons/. Acesso em: 19 fev. 2023

ONU. Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos. 1948. Disponível em: https://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/documents/udhr_translations/por.pdf. Acesso em 12 nov. 2020.

ONU. Pacto Internacional dos Direitos Civis e Políticos. 1966. Disponível em: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1990-1994/d0592.htm. Acesso em 10 nov. 2020.

ONU. Segundo Protocolo Adicional ao Pacto Internacional dos Direitos Civis e Políticos, objetivando a abolição da Perna de Morte. 1989.. Disponível em: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/second-optional-protocol-international-covenant-civil-and. Acesso em: 17 dez. 2022.

ONU. General Assembly. Report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, Christof Heyns. Abr. 2013. UN Doc A/HRC/23/47, p. 7. Disponível em: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session23/A-HRC-23-47_en.pdf. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2020.

ONU. Report of the 2019 session of the Group of Governmental Experts on Emerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems. Set. 2019. Un Doc CCW/GGE.1/2019/3. Disponível em: https://undocs.org/en/CCW/GGE.1/2019/3. Acesso em 10 nov. 2020.

ONU. Assembleia Geral. Joint Statement on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems. First Comittee, Thematic Debate. Disponível em: https://article36.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Joint_Statement_on_Lethal_Autonomous_Weapons_Systems_final.pdf. Acesso em: 15 fev. 2023

OETER, Stefan. Methods and Means of Combat. In: FLECK, Dieter (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

ROGERS, Anthony P.V. Law on the Battlefield. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996.

SANDOZ, Yves; SWINARSKI, Christian; ZIMMERMANN, Bruno. Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. ICRC, 1987

SASSÓLI, Marco. Autonomous Weapons and International Humanitarian Law: Advantages, Open Technical Questions and Legal Issues to be Clarified. International Law Studies/Naval War College, v. 90, p. 308-340, 2014.

SHACHTMAN, N. Robot Cannon Kills 9, Wounds 14. Wired, São Francisco, 18 out. 2007. Disponível em: https://www.wired.com/2007/10/robot-cannon-ki/. Acesso em 10 dez. 2020.

SHAW, Malcolm. Geneva Conventions. Encyclopedia Britannica, [S. l.], 4 mar. 2020. Disponível em: https://www.britannica.com/event/Geneva-Conventions. Acesso em: 8 out. 2020.

STATISTA. More Countries are using drones: number of countries owning unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Com dados de Munich Security Report, 2019. Disponível em https://www.statista.com/chart/17021/number-of-countries-using-drones/. Acesso em: 18 fev. 2023.

SWINARSKI, C. O direito internacional humanitário como sistema de proteção internacional da pessoa humana. Revista do Instituto Brasileiro de Direitos Humanos, [S.l.], n. 4, p. 33-48, dez. 2003. Disponível em: http://revista.ibdh.org.br/index.php/ibdh/article/view/5/7. Acesso em 12 nov. 2020.

ROWE, Peter John. Law of War. Encyclopedia Britannica, [S. l.], 26 set. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.britannica.com/topic/law-of-war. Acesso em: 8 out. 2020

RUSSEL, Stuart. Why we need to regulate non-state use of arms. World Economic Forum, 18 mai 2022. Disponível em: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/05/regulate-non-state-use-arms/. Acesso em: 19 fev. 2023

SHARRE, Paul. Debunking the AI Arms Race Theory. Texas National Security Review, v. 4, n. 3, pp. 121-132, 2021. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.26153/tsw/13985

THE Dangers of Killer Robots and the Need for a Preemptive Ban. Human Rights Watch, Nova Iorque, dez. 2016. Disponível em: https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/12/09/making-case/dangers-killer-robots-and-need-preemptive-ban. Acesso em 20 nov. 2020.

THE human challenge of technology-intensive military systems. Armed Forces Journal, Springfield, 1, fev. 2011. Disponível em: http://armedforcesjournal.com/not-by-widgets-alone/. Acesso em: 20 dez. 2020.

THE ECONOMIST. Autonomous weapons are a game-changer. The Economist, 25 jan. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.economist.com/special-report/2018/01/25/autonomous-weapons-are-a-game-changer. Acesso em: 18 fev. 2023

WICKS, Elizabeth. The Right to Life in Times of War or Armed Conflict. In: WICKS, Elizabeth. The Right to Life and Conflicting Interests. Oxford: OUP, 2010, pp. 79-101.

WILKINS, Brett. Hi-tech military weapons breed new danger. New age, feb. 11 2023. Disponível em: https://www.newagebd.net/article/194082/hi-tech-military-weapons-breed-new-danger. Acesso em: 19 fev. 2023.

Revista Direito.UnB | Janeiro – Abril, 2024, V. 08, N.1 | ISSN 2357-8009 |

Published

2024-04-30

How to Cite

CARDOSO SQUEFF, Tatiana; TEIXEIRA JUNQUEIRA NETO, Antônio; GUIMARÃES CARRIJO, Augusto; COSTA BATISTA, Willy Ernandes. THE (IL)LEGALITY OF THE USE OF AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS SYSTEMS UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW. Direito.UnB - Law Journal of the University of Brasília, [S. l.], v. 8, n. 1, p. 239–273, 2024. Disponível em: https://periodicos.unb.br/index.php/revistadedireitounb/article/view/47248. Acesso em: 10 jun. 2024.

Similar Articles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.