Specific Reading Difficulty:
The Identification of Cognitive Déficits and the Information Processing Approach
Keywords:
Types of developmental dyslexia, Verbal memory, Phonological awareness, Processing of spoken and written languageAbstract
This is a review of literature about specific reading difficulty or dyslexia from two perspectives: the identification
of cognitive déficits and the information processing approach. The data indicate that the main difficulty of the dyslexics seems
to be associated with déficits in verbal memory and in the segmentation and blending of phonemes. Recently, the possibility
of another type of dyslexia, resulting from a specific difficulty with the lexical processing, has been also identified. It is
demonstrated how the processing models of speech and of written language can be used to explain and to define the nature of
the phonological and lexical difficulties of the dyslexic children.
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References
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ability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24, 1027-1030.
Baron, J. & Treiman, R. (1980). Some problems in the study of
differences in cognitive processes. Memory and Cognition, 8,
313-321.
Birch, H. & Belmont, A. (1964). Auditory-visual integration in
normal and retarded readers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
34, 852-861.
Blank, M. & Bridges, W.H. (1966). Deficiencies in verbal labeling
in retarded readers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 36,
840-847.
Boder, E. (1973). Developmental dyslexia: A diagnostic approach
based on three atypical reading-spelling patterns. Developmental
Medicine and Child Neurology, 15, 663-687.
Bradley, L. & Bryant, P. (1978). Difficulties in auditory organization
as a possible cause of reading backwardness. Nature, 271,
146-141.
Bradley, L. & Bryant, P. (1983). Categorising sounds and learning
to read: A causai connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
Bryant, P. & Bradley, L. (1985). Children's reading problems:
Psychology and education. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Bryant, P. & Impey, Y.L. (1986). The similarities between normal
readers and developmental and acquired dyslexics. Cognition,
24, 121- 137.
Byrne, B. & Shea, P. (1979). Semantic and phonetic memory codes
in beginning readers. Memory and Cognition, 7, 333-338.
Cardoso-Martins, C. (1995). Sensitivity to rhymes, syllables and
phonemes in Iiteracy acquisition in Portuguese. Reading Research
Quarterly, 30, 808-828.
Castles, A. & Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental
dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149-180.
Coltheart, M. (1987). Varieties of developmental dyslexia: A
comment on Bryant and Impey. Cognition, 27, 97-101.
Ellis, A.W. (1984). Reading writing and dyslexia: A cognitive
analysis. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ellis, A.W. & Young, A.W. (1988). Human cognitive neuropsychology.
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia.
Em K.E. Patterson, J.C. Marshall & M. Coltheart (Orgs.),
Surface dyslexia (pp. 301-330). London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul.
Galaburda, A.M. (1989). From reading to neurons. Cambridge,
Mass: MIT Press.
lorm, A. (1983). Determinants of individual differences in reading
achievement. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35, 163-174.
Liberman, I.Y., Shankweiler, D., Liberman, A., Fowler, C. &
Fischer, F.W. (1977). Phonetic segmentation and recoding in
the beginning reader. Em A.S. Reber & D.L. Scarborough
(Orgs.), Towards a psychology of reading (pp. 207-225). London:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lundberg, I., Frost, J. & Petersen, O. (1988). Effects of an extensive
program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool
children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 263-284.
Morais, J., Cary, L., Alegria, J. & Bertelson, P. (1979). Does
awareness of speech as a sequence of phones arise spontaneously?
Cognition, 7, 323-331.
Morton, J. (1979). Facilitation in word recognition: Experiments
causing change in the logogen model. Em P.A. Kolers, M.E.
Wrolstand & H. Bouma (Orgs.), Processing ofvisible language
(Vol. 1, pp. 259-268). New York: Plenum Press.
Olson, R., Wise, B., Conners, F., Rack, J. & Fulker, D. (1989).
Specific déficits in component reading and language skills:
Genetic and environmental influences. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 22, 339-348.
Orton, S.T. (1925). "Word blindness" in school children. Archives
of Neurology and Psychiatry, 14, 581-615.
Pinheiro, A.M.V. (1984). The views of a sample of Scottish psychologists
on the definitions, assessment and treatment of children
with specific reading difficulty. Tese de Mestrado,
Universidade de Glasgow, Escócia.
Pinheiro, A.M.V. (1989). Reading and spelling development in
Brazilian Portuguese. Tese de Doutorado, Universidade de
Dundee, Escócia.
Pinheiro, A.M.V. (1994). A leitura e a escrita: uma abordagem
cognitiva. Campinas: Editorial Psy II.
Rack, J. (1985). Orthographic and phonetic encoding in normal and
dyslexic readers. British Journal ofPsychology, 76, 325-340.
Rack, J., Snowling, M. & Olson, R. (1992). The nonword reading
defict in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research
Quarterly, 27, 29-53.
Read , CA., Zhang, Y, Nie, H. & Ding, B. (1986). The ability to
manipulate speech sounds depends on knowing alphabetic
reading. Cognition, 24, 31-45.
Schwartz, M.F. Saffran, E.M. & Marin, O.S.M. (1980). Fractionating
the reading process in dementia: Evidence for word-speci fie
print-to-sound associations. Em M. Coltheart, K.E. Patterson &
J.C Marshall (Orgs.), Deep Dyslexia (pp. 259-269). London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Seymour, P.H.K. (1986). Cognitive analysis of dyslexia. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Seymour, P.H.K. (1992). The assessmentof reading disorders. Em
J.R. Crawford, D.M. Parker & W.W. Mckinlay (Orgs.), A
handbook of neuropsychological assessment. (pp. 223-239)
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Seymour, P.H.K. (1994, abril). Variability in dyslexia. Trabalho
apresentado British Dyslexia Association, Manchester.
Seymour, P.H.K. & Evans, R. (no prelo). Sources of constraint and
individual variations in normal and impairde spelling. Em G.D.
A. Brown & N.C Ellis (Orgs.), Handbook of normal and
impaired spelling development: Theory, processes and intervention.
Chichester: Wiley.
Seymour, P.H.K. & MacGregor, CJ. (1984). Developmental dyslexia:
A cognitive experimental analysis of phonological, morphemic
and visual impairments. Cognitive Neuropsychology,
7,43-82.
Snowling, M.J. (1987). Dyslexia: A cognitive developmental perspective.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Snowling, M.J., Goulandris, N., Bowlby, M. & Howell, P. (1986).
Segmentation and speech perception in relation to reading skill:
A developmental analysis. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 41,
489-507.
Stanley, G. (1975). Two-part stimulus integration and specific
reading disability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 873-874.
Stuart, K.M., & Coltheart, M. (1988). Does reading develop in a
sequence of stages? Cognition, 30, 139-181.
Swanson, H.L. (1984). Semantic and visual memory codes in
learning disabled readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,
37, 124-140.
Vellutino, F.R. (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and research. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press.
Vellutino, F.R, Steger, J. A, DeSetto, L. & Phillips, F. (1975).
Immediate and delayed recognition of visual stimuli in poor and
normal readers. Journal of Genetic Child Psychology, 126,
3-18.
Vellutino, F.R , Steger, J.A. & Pruzek, R. (1973). Inter vs intrasensory
déficit in paired associative learning in poor and normal
readers. Canadian Journal ofBehavioural Science, 5,111 -123.
Wimmer, H., Landerl, K., Linorter, R. & Hummer, P. (1991). The
relationship of phonemic awareness to reading acquisition:
More consequence than precondition but still important. Cognition,
40, 219-249.
ability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24, 1027-1030.
Baron, J. & Treiman, R. (1980). Some problems in the study of
differences in cognitive processes. Memory and Cognition, 8,
313-321.
Birch, H. & Belmont, A. (1964). Auditory-visual integration in
normal and retarded readers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
34, 852-861.
Blank, M. & Bridges, W.H. (1966). Deficiencies in verbal labeling
in retarded readers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 36,
840-847.
Boder, E. (1973). Developmental dyslexia: A diagnostic approach
based on three atypical reading-spelling patterns. Developmental
Medicine and Child Neurology, 15, 663-687.
Bradley, L. & Bryant, P. (1978). Difficulties in auditory organization
as a possible cause of reading backwardness. Nature, 271,
146-141.
Bradley, L. & Bryant, P. (1983). Categorising sounds and learning
to read: A causai connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
Bryant, P. & Bradley, L. (1985). Children's reading problems:
Psychology and education. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Bryant, P. & Impey, Y.L. (1986). The similarities between normal
readers and developmental and acquired dyslexics. Cognition,
24, 121- 137.
Byrne, B. & Shea, P. (1979). Semantic and phonetic memory codes
in beginning readers. Memory and Cognition, 7, 333-338.
Cardoso-Martins, C. (1995). Sensitivity to rhymes, syllables and
phonemes in Iiteracy acquisition in Portuguese. Reading Research
Quarterly, 30, 808-828.
Castles, A. & Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental
dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149-180.
Coltheart, M. (1987). Varieties of developmental dyslexia: A
comment on Bryant and Impey. Cognition, 27, 97-101.
Ellis, A.W. (1984). Reading writing and dyslexia: A cognitive
analysis. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ellis, A.W. & Young, A.W. (1988). Human cognitive neuropsychology.
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia.
Em K.E. Patterson, J.C. Marshall & M. Coltheart (Orgs.),
Surface dyslexia (pp. 301-330). London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul.
Galaburda, A.M. (1989). From reading to neurons. Cambridge,
Mass: MIT Press.
lorm, A. (1983). Determinants of individual differences in reading
achievement. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35, 163-174.
Liberman, I.Y., Shankweiler, D., Liberman, A., Fowler, C. &
Fischer, F.W. (1977). Phonetic segmentation and recoding in
the beginning reader. Em A.S. Reber & D.L. Scarborough
(Orgs.), Towards a psychology of reading (pp. 207-225). London:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lundberg, I., Frost, J. & Petersen, O. (1988). Effects of an extensive
program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool
children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 263-284.
Morais, J., Cary, L., Alegria, J. & Bertelson, P. (1979). Does
awareness of speech as a sequence of phones arise spontaneously?
Cognition, 7, 323-331.
Morton, J. (1979). Facilitation in word recognition: Experiments
causing change in the logogen model. Em P.A. Kolers, M.E.
Wrolstand & H. Bouma (Orgs.), Processing ofvisible language
(Vol. 1, pp. 259-268). New York: Plenum Press.
Olson, R., Wise, B., Conners, F., Rack, J. & Fulker, D. (1989).
Specific déficits in component reading and language skills:
Genetic and environmental influences. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 22, 339-348.
Orton, S.T. (1925). "Word blindness" in school children. Archives
of Neurology and Psychiatry, 14, 581-615.
Pinheiro, A.M.V. (1984). The views of a sample of Scottish psychologists
on the definitions, assessment and treatment of children
with specific reading difficulty. Tese de Mestrado,
Universidade de Glasgow, Escócia.
Pinheiro, A.M.V. (1989). Reading and spelling development in
Brazilian Portuguese. Tese de Doutorado, Universidade de
Dundee, Escócia.
Pinheiro, A.M.V. (1994). A leitura e a escrita: uma abordagem
cognitiva. Campinas: Editorial Psy II.
Rack, J. (1985). Orthographic and phonetic encoding in normal and
dyslexic readers. British Journal ofPsychology, 76, 325-340.
Rack, J., Snowling, M. & Olson, R. (1992). The nonword reading
defict in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research
Quarterly, 27, 29-53.
Read , CA., Zhang, Y, Nie, H. & Ding, B. (1986). The ability to
manipulate speech sounds depends on knowing alphabetic
reading. Cognition, 24, 31-45.
Schwartz, M.F. Saffran, E.M. & Marin, O.S.M. (1980). Fractionating
the reading process in dementia: Evidence for word-speci fie
print-to-sound associations. Em M. Coltheart, K.E. Patterson &
J.C Marshall (Orgs.), Deep Dyslexia (pp. 259-269). London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Seymour, P.H.K. (1986). Cognitive analysis of dyslexia. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Seymour, P.H.K. (1992). The assessmentof reading disorders. Em
J.R. Crawford, D.M. Parker & W.W. Mckinlay (Orgs.), A
handbook of neuropsychological assessment. (pp. 223-239)
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Seymour, P.H.K. (1994, abril). Variability in dyslexia. Trabalho
apresentado British Dyslexia Association, Manchester.
Seymour, P.H.K. & Evans, R. (no prelo). Sources of constraint and
individual variations in normal and impairde spelling. Em G.D.
A. Brown & N.C Ellis (Orgs.), Handbook of normal and
impaired spelling development: Theory, processes and intervention.
Chichester: Wiley.
Seymour, P.H.K. & MacGregor, CJ. (1984). Developmental dyslexia:
A cognitive experimental analysis of phonological, morphemic
and visual impairments. Cognitive Neuropsychology,
7,43-82.
Snowling, M.J. (1987). Dyslexia: A cognitive developmental perspective.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Snowling, M.J., Goulandris, N., Bowlby, M. & Howell, P. (1986).
Segmentation and speech perception in relation to reading skill:
A developmental analysis. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 41,
489-507.
Stanley, G. (1975). Two-part stimulus integration and specific
reading disability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 873-874.
Stuart, K.M., & Coltheart, M. (1988). Does reading develop in a
sequence of stages? Cognition, 30, 139-181.
Swanson, H.L. (1984). Semantic and visual memory codes in
learning disabled readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,
37, 124-140.
Vellutino, F.R. (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and research. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press.
Vellutino, F.R, Steger, J. A, DeSetto, L. & Phillips, F. (1975).
Immediate and delayed recognition of visual stimuli in poor and
normal readers. Journal of Genetic Child Psychology, 126,
3-18.
Vellutino, F.R , Steger, J.A. & Pruzek, R. (1973). Inter vs intrasensory
déficit in paired associative learning in poor and normal
readers. Canadian Journal ofBehavioural Science, 5,111 -123.
Wimmer, H., Landerl, K., Linorter, R. & Hummer, P. (1991). The
relationship of phonemic awareness to reading acquisition:
More consequence than precondition but still important. Cognition,
40, 219-249.
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Published
2012-09-24
How to Cite
Vieira Pinheiro, Ângela M. (2012). Specific Reading Difficulty:: The Identification of Cognitive Déficits and the Information Processing Approach. Psicologia: Teoria E Pesquisa, 11(2), 107–115. Retrieved from https://periodicos.unb.br/index.php/revistaptp/article/view/17239
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