Free Association Norms for 1004 Portuguese Words
Keywords:
Norms, Free association, Forward Association Strength, Backward Association StrengthAbstract
Association norms for 1004 Brazilian Portuguese words are presented. The free association paradigm was applied collecting the first word associated with the cue, thus avoiding response chaining and response inhibition. At least 100 participants produced the first associate of each word cue. Eight hundred seventy one undergraduates enrolled in 44 majors in public and private universities participated in the research. The norms report Forward Association Strength of all word cues and Backward Association Strength is included in several words. The number of associates per cue varied from 2 to 26. Stronger cue-to-target associations corresponded to the first six associative positions. Issues related to the validity and generality of norms are discussed.
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References
Anderson, J. R. (1983). A spreading activation theory of memory.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22(3), 261-
295. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90201-3
Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition.
American Psychologist, 51(4), 355-365. doi:org/10.1037/0003-
066X.51.4.355
Battig, W. F., & Montague, W. E. (1969). Category norms for
verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension
of the Connecticut category norms. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 80(3, Pt.2), 1-46. doi:org/10.1037/h0027577
Castilho, G. M., & Janczura, G. A. (2012). Raciocínio condicional: A
conclusão depende do conhecimento armazenado na memória.
Estudos de Psicologia, 17(1), 53-61.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of a Theory of Syntax. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Cofer, C. N. (1967). Conditions for the use of verbal associations.
Psychological Bulletin, 68(1), 1-12. doi:org/10.1037/h0024713
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory
of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82(6), 407-428.
doi:org/10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407
Deese, J. (1965). On the prediction of occurrence of particular
verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 58(1), 17-22. doi:org/10.1037/h0046671
Galton, E. (1879). Psychometric experiments. Brain, 2(2), 149-162.
doi:org/10.1093/brain/2.2.149
Gazdar, G., Klein, E., Pullum, G., & Sag, I. (1985). Generalized
Phrase Structure Grammar. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Gee, N. R. (1997). Implicit memory and word ambiguity. Journal
of Memory and Language, 36(2), 253-275. doi:org/10.1006/
jmla.1996.2481
Gee, N. R., Nelson, D. L., & Krawczyk, D. (1999). Is the concreteness
effect a result of underlying network interconnectivity? Journal
of Memory and Language, 40(4), 479-497. doi:org/10.1006/
jmla.1998.2627
Gorman, A. M. (1961). Recognition memory for nouns as a function
of abstractness and frequency. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 61(1), 23-29. doi:org/10.1037/h0040561
Haberlandt, K. F., & Graesser, A. C. (1985). Component processes
in text comprehension and some of their interactions. Journal
of Experimental Psychology: General, 114(3), 357-375. doi:
org/10.1037/0096-3445.114.3.357
Hall, J. F. (1954). Learning as a function of word frequency.
The American Journal of Psychology, 67(1), 138-140.
doi:10.2307/1418080
Janczura, G. A. (1996). Normas associativas para 69 categorias
semânticas. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 12(3), 237-244.
Janczura, G. A. (2005). Contexto e normas de associação para
palavras: a redução do campo semântico. Paideia, 15(32),
417-425. doi:10.1590/S0103-8632005000300011
Janczura, G. A., & Nelson, D. L. (1999). Concept accessibility as
the determinant of typicality judgments. The American Journal
of Psychology, 112(1), 1-19.
Janczura, G. A., & Nelson, D. L. (2006). A hipótese da acessibilidade
conceitual para a tipicidade e a produção linguística.
Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 19(3), 491-497. doi:10.1590/
S010279722006000300018
Janczura, G. A., Castilho, G. M., & Rocha, N. O. (no prelo).
Normas do tamanho da categoria para 906 palavras da língua
portuguesa. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa.
Janczura, G. A., Castilho, G. M., Rocha, N. O., & van Erven, T. J.
C. (2007). Normas de concretude para 909 palavras da língua
portuguesa. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 23(2), 195-204.
Kausler, D. H., & Kollasch, S. F. (1970). Word association to
homographs. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,
9(4), 444-449. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80086-X
Kucera, H., & Francis, W. N. (1967). Computational Analysis
of Present-day American English. Providence, RI: Brown
University Press.
McEvoy, C. L., Nelson, D. L., & Komatsu, T. (1999). What
is the connection between true and false memories?
The differential roles of interitem associations in recall
and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 25(5), 1177-1194. doi:
org/10.1037/0278-7393.25.5.1177
Meyer, D. E., Schvaneveldt, R. W., & Ruddy, M. E. (1974).
Functions of graphemic and phonemic codes in visual word
recognition. Memory & Cognition, 2(2), 309-321. doi:10.3758/
BF03209002
Nairne, J. S., Pusen, C. P., & Widner, R. L. (1985). Representation
in mental lexicon: Implications for theories of the generation
effect. Memory & Cognition, 13(2), 183-191. doi:10.3758/
BF03197011
Nelson, D. L., Bennett, D. J., Gee, N. R., Schreiber, T. A., &
McKinney, M. (1993). Implicit memory: Effects of network
size and interconnectivity on cued recall. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
19(4), 747-764. doi:org/10.1037/0278-7393.19.4.747
Nelson, D. L., Dyrdal, G. M., & Goodmon, L. B. (2005). What is
pre-existing strength? Predicting free association probabilities,
similarity ratings, and cued recall probabilities. Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, 12(4), 711-719. doi:10.3758/BF03196762
Nelson, D. L., & Goodmon, L. B. (2002). Experiencing a word can
prime its accessibility and its associative connections to related
words. Memory & Cognition, 30(3), 380-398. doi:10.3758/
BF03194939
Nelson, D. L., & Goodmon, L. B. (2003). Disrupting attention: The
need for retrieval cues in working memory theories. Memory
& Cognition, 31(1), 65-76. doi:10.3758/BF03196083
Nelson, D. L., & McEvoy, C. L. (1979). Encoding context and set
size. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and
Memory, 5(3), 292-314. doi:org/10.1037/0278-7393.5.3.292
Nelson, D. L., & McEvoy, C. L. (2005). Implicitly activated
memories: The missing links of remembering. In C. Izawa
& N. Ohta (Eds.), Human Learning and Memory: Advances
in Theory and Application: The 4th Tsukuba International
Conference on Memory (pp. 177-198). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L., & Dennis, S. (2000). What is free
association and what does it measure? Memory & Cognition,
28(6), 887-899. doi:10.3758/BF03209337
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L., & Pointer, L. (2003). Spreading
activation or spooky action at a distance? Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
29(1), 42-52. doi:org/10.1037/0278-7393.29.1.42
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L., & Schreiber, T. A. (2004). The
University of South Florida free association, rhyme, and word
fragment norms. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, &
Computers, 36(3), 402-407. doi:10.3758/BF03195588
Nelson, D. L., McKinney, V. M., Gee, N., & Janczura, G. A. (1998).
Interpreting the influence of implicitly activated memories on
recall and recognition. Psychological Review, 105(2), 299-324.
doi:org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.299
Nelson, D. L., & Schreiber, T. A. (1992). Word concreteness and
word structure as independent determinants of recall. Journal
of Memory and Language, 31(2), 237-260.doi:10.1016/0749-
596X(92)90013-N
Nelson, D. L., Schreiber, T. A., & Holley, P. E. (1992a). The
retrieval of controlled and automatic aspects of meaning on
direct and indirect tests. Memory & Cognition, 20(6), 671-684.
doi:10.3758/BF03202717
Nelson, D. L., Schreiber, T. A., & McEvoy, C. L. (1992b).
Processing implicit and explicit representations. Psychological
Review, 99(2), 322-348. doi:org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.2.322
Nelson, D. L., & Xu, J. (1995). Effects of implicit memory on explicit
recall: Set size and word frequency effects. Psychological
Research, 57(3), 203-214. doi:10.1007/BF00431281
Oliveira, N. R., Janczura, G. A., & Castilho, G. M. (2013). Normas
de alerta e valência para 908 palavras da língua portuguesa.
Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 29(2), 185-200.
Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Madigan, S. A. (1968). Concreteness,
imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 76(1, Pt.2), 1-25. doi:org/10.1037/
h0025327
Reich, R. R., & Goldman, M. S. (2005). Exploring the alcohol
expectancy memory network: The utility of free associates.
Psychology of Additive Behaviors, 19(3), 317-325.
doi:org/10.1037/0893-164X.19.3.317
Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2001). Imagery and text: A dual coding
theory of reading and writing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Salles, J. F., Holderbaum, C. S., Becker, N., Rodrigues, J. C.,
Liedtke, F. V., Zibetti, M. R., & Piccoli, L. F. (2008). Normas de
associação semântica para 88 palavras do português brasileiro.
Psico, 39(3), 260-268.
Schacter, D. L. (1989). On the relation between memory and
consciousness: Dissociable interactions and conscious
experience. In H. L. Roediger, III, & E. I. M. Craik (Eds.),
Varieties of Memory and Consciousness: Essays in Honor of
Endel Tulving (pp. 335-89). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbanm.
Schreiber, T. A., & Nelson, D. L. (1998). The relation between
feelings of knowing and the number of neighboring concepts
linked to the test cue. Memory & Cognition, 26(5), 869-883.
doi:10.3758/BF03201170
Stacy, A. W. (1997). Memory activation and expectancy as
prospective predictor of alcohol and marijuana use. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 61-73. doi:org.ez54.periodicos.
capes.gov.br/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.61
Stein, L. M., & Gomes, C. F. A. (2009). Normas brasileiras
para listas de palavras associadas: Associação semântica,
concretude, frequencia e emocionalidade. Psicologia: Teoria
e Pesquisa, 25(4), 537-546.
Thorndike, E. L., & Lorge, I. (1944). The teacher’s wordbook of
30,000 words. New York: Teacher’s College Press, Columbia
University.
Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? The
American Psychologist, 40(4), 385-398. doi:org/10.1037/0003-
066X.40.4.385
Underwood, B. J. (1965). False recognition produced by implicit
verbal responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70(1),
122-129. doi:org/10.1037/h0022014
Yoon, C., Feinberg, F., Hu, P., Gutchees, A. H., Hedden, T., Chen,
H-Y. M., Park, D. C. (2004). Category norms as a function
of culture and age: Comparisons of item responses to 105
categories by American and Chinese adults. Psychology and
Aging, 19(3), 379-393. doi:org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.379
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22(3), 261-
295. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90201-3
Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition.
American Psychologist, 51(4), 355-365. doi:org/10.1037/0003-
066X.51.4.355
Battig, W. F., & Montague, W. E. (1969). Category norms for
verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension
of the Connecticut category norms. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 80(3, Pt.2), 1-46. doi:org/10.1037/h0027577
Castilho, G. M., & Janczura, G. A. (2012). Raciocínio condicional: A
conclusão depende do conhecimento armazenado na memória.
Estudos de Psicologia, 17(1), 53-61.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of a Theory of Syntax. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Cofer, C. N. (1967). Conditions for the use of verbal associations.
Psychological Bulletin, 68(1), 1-12. doi:org/10.1037/h0024713
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory
of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82(6), 407-428.
doi:org/10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407
Deese, J. (1965). On the prediction of occurrence of particular
verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 58(1), 17-22. doi:org/10.1037/h0046671
Galton, E. (1879). Psychometric experiments. Brain, 2(2), 149-162.
doi:org/10.1093/brain/2.2.149
Gazdar, G., Klein, E., Pullum, G., & Sag, I. (1985). Generalized
Phrase Structure Grammar. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Gee, N. R. (1997). Implicit memory and word ambiguity. Journal
of Memory and Language, 36(2), 253-275. doi:org/10.1006/
jmla.1996.2481
Gee, N. R., Nelson, D. L., & Krawczyk, D. (1999). Is the concreteness
effect a result of underlying network interconnectivity? Journal
of Memory and Language, 40(4), 479-497. doi:org/10.1006/
jmla.1998.2627
Gorman, A. M. (1961). Recognition memory for nouns as a function
of abstractness and frequency. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 61(1), 23-29. doi:org/10.1037/h0040561
Haberlandt, K. F., & Graesser, A. C. (1985). Component processes
in text comprehension and some of their interactions. Journal
of Experimental Psychology: General, 114(3), 357-375. doi:
org/10.1037/0096-3445.114.3.357
Hall, J. F. (1954). Learning as a function of word frequency.
The American Journal of Psychology, 67(1), 138-140.
doi:10.2307/1418080
Janczura, G. A. (1996). Normas associativas para 69 categorias
semânticas. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 12(3), 237-244.
Janczura, G. A. (2005). Contexto e normas de associação para
palavras: a redução do campo semântico. Paideia, 15(32),
417-425. doi:10.1590/S0103-8632005000300011
Janczura, G. A., & Nelson, D. L. (1999). Concept accessibility as
the determinant of typicality judgments. The American Journal
of Psychology, 112(1), 1-19.
Janczura, G. A., & Nelson, D. L. (2006). A hipótese da acessibilidade
conceitual para a tipicidade e a produção linguística.
Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 19(3), 491-497. doi:10.1590/
S010279722006000300018
Janczura, G. A., Castilho, G. M., & Rocha, N. O. (no prelo).
Normas do tamanho da categoria para 906 palavras da língua
portuguesa. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa.
Janczura, G. A., Castilho, G. M., Rocha, N. O., & van Erven, T. J.
C. (2007). Normas de concretude para 909 palavras da língua
portuguesa. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 23(2), 195-204.
Kausler, D. H., & Kollasch, S. F. (1970). Word association to
homographs. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,
9(4), 444-449. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80086-X
Kucera, H., & Francis, W. N. (1967). Computational Analysis
of Present-day American English. Providence, RI: Brown
University Press.
McEvoy, C. L., Nelson, D. L., & Komatsu, T. (1999). What
is the connection between true and false memories?
The differential roles of interitem associations in recall
and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 25(5), 1177-1194. doi:
org/10.1037/0278-7393.25.5.1177
Meyer, D. E., Schvaneveldt, R. W., & Ruddy, M. E. (1974).
Functions of graphemic and phonemic codes in visual word
recognition. Memory & Cognition, 2(2), 309-321. doi:10.3758/
BF03209002
Nairne, J. S., Pusen, C. P., & Widner, R. L. (1985). Representation
in mental lexicon: Implications for theories of the generation
effect. Memory & Cognition, 13(2), 183-191. doi:10.3758/
BF03197011
Nelson, D. L., Bennett, D. J., Gee, N. R., Schreiber, T. A., &
McKinney, M. (1993). Implicit memory: Effects of network
size and interconnectivity on cued recall. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
19(4), 747-764. doi:org/10.1037/0278-7393.19.4.747
Nelson, D. L., Dyrdal, G. M., & Goodmon, L. B. (2005). What is
pre-existing strength? Predicting free association probabilities,
similarity ratings, and cued recall probabilities. Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, 12(4), 711-719. doi:10.3758/BF03196762
Nelson, D. L., & Goodmon, L. B. (2002). Experiencing a word can
prime its accessibility and its associative connections to related
words. Memory & Cognition, 30(3), 380-398. doi:10.3758/
BF03194939
Nelson, D. L., & Goodmon, L. B. (2003). Disrupting attention: The
need for retrieval cues in working memory theories. Memory
& Cognition, 31(1), 65-76. doi:10.3758/BF03196083
Nelson, D. L., & McEvoy, C. L. (1979). Encoding context and set
size. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and
Memory, 5(3), 292-314. doi:org/10.1037/0278-7393.5.3.292
Nelson, D. L., & McEvoy, C. L. (2005). Implicitly activated
memories: The missing links of remembering. In C. Izawa
& N. Ohta (Eds.), Human Learning and Memory: Advances
in Theory and Application: The 4th Tsukuba International
Conference on Memory (pp. 177-198). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L., & Dennis, S. (2000). What is free
association and what does it measure? Memory & Cognition,
28(6), 887-899. doi:10.3758/BF03209337
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L., & Pointer, L. (2003). Spreading
activation or spooky action at a distance? Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
29(1), 42-52. doi:org/10.1037/0278-7393.29.1.42
Nelson, D. L., McEvoy, C. L., & Schreiber, T. A. (2004). The
University of South Florida free association, rhyme, and word
fragment norms. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, &
Computers, 36(3), 402-407. doi:10.3758/BF03195588
Nelson, D. L., McKinney, V. M., Gee, N., & Janczura, G. A. (1998).
Interpreting the influence of implicitly activated memories on
recall and recognition. Psychological Review, 105(2), 299-324.
doi:org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.299
Nelson, D. L., & Schreiber, T. A. (1992). Word concreteness and
word structure as independent determinants of recall. Journal
of Memory and Language, 31(2), 237-260.doi:10.1016/0749-
596X(92)90013-N
Nelson, D. L., Schreiber, T. A., & Holley, P. E. (1992a). The
retrieval of controlled and automatic aspects of meaning on
direct and indirect tests. Memory & Cognition, 20(6), 671-684.
doi:10.3758/BF03202717
Nelson, D. L., Schreiber, T. A., & McEvoy, C. L. (1992b).
Processing implicit and explicit representations. Psychological
Review, 99(2), 322-348. doi:org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.2.322
Nelson, D. L., & Xu, J. (1995). Effects of implicit memory on explicit
recall: Set size and word frequency effects. Psychological
Research, 57(3), 203-214. doi:10.1007/BF00431281
Oliveira, N. R., Janczura, G. A., & Castilho, G. M. (2013). Normas
de alerta e valência para 908 palavras da língua portuguesa.
Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 29(2), 185-200.
Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Madigan, S. A. (1968). Concreteness,
imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 76(1, Pt.2), 1-25. doi:org/10.1037/
h0025327
Reich, R. R., & Goldman, M. S. (2005). Exploring the alcohol
expectancy memory network: The utility of free associates.
Psychology of Additive Behaviors, 19(3), 317-325.
doi:org/10.1037/0893-164X.19.3.317
Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2001). Imagery and text: A dual coding
theory of reading and writing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Salles, J. F., Holderbaum, C. S., Becker, N., Rodrigues, J. C.,
Liedtke, F. V., Zibetti, M. R., & Piccoli, L. F. (2008). Normas de
associação semântica para 88 palavras do português brasileiro.
Psico, 39(3), 260-268.
Schacter, D. L. (1989). On the relation between memory and
consciousness: Dissociable interactions and conscious
experience. In H. L. Roediger, III, & E. I. M. Craik (Eds.),
Varieties of Memory and Consciousness: Essays in Honor of
Endel Tulving (pp. 335-89). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbanm.
Schreiber, T. A., & Nelson, D. L. (1998). The relation between
feelings of knowing and the number of neighboring concepts
linked to the test cue. Memory & Cognition, 26(5), 869-883.
doi:10.3758/BF03201170
Stacy, A. W. (1997). Memory activation and expectancy as
prospective predictor of alcohol and marijuana use. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 61-73. doi:org.ez54.periodicos.
capes.gov.br/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.61
Stein, L. M., & Gomes, C. F. A. (2009). Normas brasileiras
para listas de palavras associadas: Associação semântica,
concretude, frequencia e emocionalidade. Psicologia: Teoria
e Pesquisa, 25(4), 537-546.
Thorndike, E. L., & Lorge, I. (1944). The teacher’s wordbook of
30,000 words. New York: Teacher’s College Press, Columbia
University.
Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? The
American Psychologist, 40(4), 385-398. doi:org/10.1037/0003-
066X.40.4.385
Underwood, B. J. (1965). False recognition produced by implicit
verbal responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70(1),
122-129. doi:org/10.1037/h0022014
Yoon, C., Feinberg, F., Hu, P., Gutchees, A. H., Hedden, T., Chen,
H-Y. M., Park, D. C. (2004). Category norms as a function
of culture and age: Comparisons of item responses to 105
categories by American and Chinese adults. Psychology and
Aging, 19(3), 379-393. doi:org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.379
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Published
2017-05-23
How to Cite
Janczura, G. A., Castilho, G. M., Keller, V. N., & Oliveira, N. R. (2017). Free Association Norms for 1004 Portuguese Words. Psicologia: Teoria E Pesquisa, 32(5). Retrieved from https://periodicos.unb.br/index.php/revistaptp/article/view/19384
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Section
Estudos Empíricos
