Explanatory Models of Prospective Memory:
A Theoretical Review
Keywords:
Prospective memory, Retrieval, Retention, EncodingAbstract
This article presents a review of the literature concerning the cognitive mechanisms underlying prospective
memory, organized according to the division of the different phases of this phenomenon (i.e., encoding, retention and retrieval).
Initially, a variety of research data is presented supporting different explanatory approaches of the phenomenon of intended
actions, namely their automatic and strategic processes. Also some potential explanations are presented about the mechanisms
in effect during the retention interval and the encoding phase.
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References
Banaji. M. R., & Crowder, R. G. (1989). The bankruptcy of everyday
memory. American Psychologist, 44, 1185-1193.
Brandimonte, M. A., & Passolunghi, M. C. (1994). The effect of
cue-familiarity, cue-distinctiveness, and retention interval
on prospective remembering. The Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 47, 565-587.
Camp, C. J., Foss, J. W., Stevens, A. B., & O´Hanlon, A. M. (1996).
Memory interventions for persons with dementia. Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 10, 193-210.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A
framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning
and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Dismukes, K. (2010). Remembrance of things future: Prospective
memory in laboratory, workplace and everyday situations.
Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 6, 79-122.
Dobbs, A. R., & Rule, B. G. (1987). Prospective memory and selfreports
of memory abilities in older adults. Canadian Journal
of Psychology, 41, 209”“222.
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A (1996). Retrieval processes
in prospective memory: Theoretical approaches and some
new empirical findings. In M. Bandimonte, G. Einstein,
& M. McDaniel (Eds.), Prospective memory: Theory and
applications (pp. 115-142). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (1990). Normal aging and
prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 717-726.
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Prospective
memory: Multiple retrieval processes. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 14, 286-290.
Einstein, G. O., Holland, L. J., McDaniel, M. A., & Guynn, M.
J. (1992). Age-related deficits in prospective memory: The
influence of task complexity. Psychology and Aging, 7, 471-
478.
Einstein, G. O., McDaniel, M. A., Smith, R. E., & Shaw, P. (1998).
Habitual prospective memory and aging: Remembering
intentions and forgetting actions, Psychological Science, 9,
284-288.
Einstein, G. O., McDaniel, M. A., Thomas, R., Mayfield, S., Shank,
H., & Morrisette, N. (2005). Multiple processes in prospective
memory retrieval: Factors determining monitoring versus
spontaneous retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 134, 327-342.
Ellis, J. (1996). Prospective memory or the realization of delayed
intentions: A conceptual framework for research. In M.
Bandimonte, G. Einstein, & M. McDaniel (Eds.), Prospective
memory: Theory and applications (pp. 115-142). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Ellis, J., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2000). Prospective memory in
2000: Past, present, and future direction. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 14, S1-S9.
Finstad, K., Bink, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2006).
Breaks and task switches in prospective memory. Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 20, 705-712.
Freeman, J. E., & Ellis, J. A. (2003). The representation of delayed
intentions: A prospective subject-performed task? Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
29, 976-992.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects
of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493-503.
Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (1993). Representation of intention:
Persisting activation in memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 1211-1226.
Graf, P., & Uttl, B. (2001). Prospective memory: A new focus of
research. Consciousness and Cognition, 10, 437-450.
Guajardo, N. R., & Best, D. L. (2000). Do preschoolers remember
what to do? Incentive and external cues in prospective memory.
Cognitive Development, 15, 75-97.
Guynn, M. J. (2003). A two-process model of strategic monitoring
in event-based prospective memory: Activation/retrieval
mode and checking. International Journal of Psychology,
38, 245-256.
Guynn, M. J., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (1998).
Prospective memory: When reminders fail. Memory &
Cognition, 26, 287-298.
Harris, J. E. (1984). Remembering to do things: A forgotten topic. In
J. E. Harris, & P. E. Morris (Eds.), Everyday memory, actions,
and absent mindedness (pp. 71-92). London: Academic Press.
Hicks, J. L., Marsh, R. L., & Russell, E. J. (2000). The properties
of retention intervals and their affect on retaining prospective
memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning,
Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1160”“1169.
Kliegel, M., Martin, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O.
(2002). Complex prospective memory and executive control of
working memory: A process model. Psychologische Beiträge,
44, 303”“318.
Kliegel, M., Martin, M., McDaniel, M.A., Einstein, G. O., & Moor,
C. (2007). Realizing complex delayed intentions in young and
old adults: The role of planning aids. Memory & Cognition,
35, 1735-1746.
Kliegel, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2008). Prospective
memory: Cognitive, neuroscience, developmental and applied
perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Liu, L. L., & Park., D. C. (2004). Aging and medical adherence:
The use of automatic processes to achieve effortful things.
Psychology and Aging, 19, 318-325.
Loukopoulos, L. D., Dismukes, R. K., & Barshi, I. (2009). The
multitasking myth: Handling complexity in real-world
operations. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Ashgate.
Marsh, R. L., & Hicks, J. L. (1998). Event-based prospective
memory and executive control of working memory. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
24, 336-349.
Marsh, R. L., Hicks, J. L., & Cook, G. I. (2005). On the relationship
between effort toward an ongoing task and cue detection in
event-based prospective memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 31, 68-75.
Marsh., R. L., Hicks, J. L., & Cook., G. I. (2006). Task interference
from prospective memory covaries with contextual associations
of fulfilling them. Memory & Cognition, 34, 1037-1045.
Martin, M., Kliegel, M., & McDaniel, M. A. (2003). The
involvement of executive functions in prospective memory
performance of adults. International Journal of Psychology,
38, 195-206.
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2000). Strategic and automatic
processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess
framework. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 127-144.
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007). Prospective memory:
An overview and synthesis of an emerging field. London: Sage.
McDaniel, M. A., Guynn, M. J., Einstein, G. O., & Breneiser, J.
E. (2004). Cue focused and automatic-associative processes
in prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning. Memory and Cognition, 30, 605-614.
Meacham, J. A., & Leiman. B. (1982). Remembering to perform
future actions. In U. Neisser (Ed.), Memory observed:
Remembering in natural contexts (pp. 327-336). San Francisco:
Freeman.
Norman, W., & Shallice, T. (1983). Attention to action. In R. J.
Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness
and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory, Vol. 3
(pp. 1-18). New York: Plenum Press.
Roediger, H.L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test enhanced
learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention.
Psychological Science, 17, 249”“255.
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, plans goals and
understanding: An enquiry into human knowledge structures.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sellen, A. J., Louie, G., Harris, J. E., & Wilkins, A. J. (1997). What
brings intentions to mind? An in situ study of prospective
memory. Memory, 5, 483”“507.
Shallice, T., & Burgess, P. (1991). Deficits in strategy application
following frontal lobe damage in man. Brain, 114, 727-741.
Smith, R. E. (2003). The cost of remembering to remember in eventbased
prospective memory: Investigating the capacity demands
of delayed intention performance. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 29, 357-361.
Smith, R. E., & Bayen, U. J. (2004). A multinomial model of
event-based prospective memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 756-777.
Ward, H., Shum, D., McKinlay, L., Baker-Tweney, S., & Wallace,
G. (2005). Development of prospective memory: Tasks based
on the prefrontal-lobe model. Child Neuropsychology, 11,
527-549.
West, R. L. (1996) An application of prefrontal cortex theory to
cognitive aging. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 272-292.
Zimmermann, T. & Meier, B. (2010). The effect of implementation
intentions on prospective memory performance across the
lifespan. Applied Cognitive Pshychology, 24, 645-658.
memory. American Psychologist, 44, 1185-1193.
Brandimonte, M. A., & Passolunghi, M. C. (1994). The effect of
cue-familiarity, cue-distinctiveness, and retention interval
on prospective remembering. The Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 47, 565-587.
Camp, C. J., Foss, J. W., Stevens, A. B., & O´Hanlon, A. M. (1996).
Memory interventions for persons with dementia. Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 10, 193-210.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A
framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning
and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Dismukes, K. (2010). Remembrance of things future: Prospective
memory in laboratory, workplace and everyday situations.
Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 6, 79-122.
Dobbs, A. R., & Rule, B. G. (1987). Prospective memory and selfreports
of memory abilities in older adults. Canadian Journal
of Psychology, 41, 209”“222.
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A (1996). Retrieval processes
in prospective memory: Theoretical approaches and some
new empirical findings. In M. Bandimonte, G. Einstein,
& M. McDaniel (Eds.), Prospective memory: Theory and
applications (pp. 115-142). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (1990). Normal aging and
prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 717-726.
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Prospective
memory: Multiple retrieval processes. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 14, 286-290.
Einstein, G. O., Holland, L. J., McDaniel, M. A., & Guynn, M.
J. (1992). Age-related deficits in prospective memory: The
influence of task complexity. Psychology and Aging, 7, 471-
478.
Einstein, G. O., McDaniel, M. A., Smith, R. E., & Shaw, P. (1998).
Habitual prospective memory and aging: Remembering
intentions and forgetting actions, Psychological Science, 9,
284-288.
Einstein, G. O., McDaniel, M. A., Thomas, R., Mayfield, S., Shank,
H., & Morrisette, N. (2005). Multiple processes in prospective
memory retrieval: Factors determining monitoring versus
spontaneous retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 134, 327-342.
Ellis, J. (1996). Prospective memory or the realization of delayed
intentions: A conceptual framework for research. In M.
Bandimonte, G. Einstein, & M. McDaniel (Eds.), Prospective
memory: Theory and applications (pp. 115-142). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Ellis, J., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2000). Prospective memory in
2000: Past, present, and future direction. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 14, S1-S9.
Finstad, K., Bink, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2006).
Breaks and task switches in prospective memory. Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 20, 705-712.
Freeman, J. E., & Ellis, J. A. (2003). The representation of delayed
intentions: A prospective subject-performed task? Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
29, 976-992.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects
of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493-503.
Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (1993). Representation of intention:
Persisting activation in memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 1211-1226.
Graf, P., & Uttl, B. (2001). Prospective memory: A new focus of
research. Consciousness and Cognition, 10, 437-450.
Guajardo, N. R., & Best, D. L. (2000). Do preschoolers remember
what to do? Incentive and external cues in prospective memory.
Cognitive Development, 15, 75-97.
Guynn, M. J. (2003). A two-process model of strategic monitoring
in event-based prospective memory: Activation/retrieval
mode and checking. International Journal of Psychology,
38, 245-256.
Guynn, M. J., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (1998).
Prospective memory: When reminders fail. Memory &
Cognition, 26, 287-298.
Harris, J. E. (1984). Remembering to do things: A forgotten topic. In
J. E. Harris, & P. E. Morris (Eds.), Everyday memory, actions,
and absent mindedness (pp. 71-92). London: Academic Press.
Hicks, J. L., Marsh, R. L., & Russell, E. J. (2000). The properties
of retention intervals and their affect on retaining prospective
memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning,
Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1160”“1169.
Kliegel, M., Martin, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O.
(2002). Complex prospective memory and executive control of
working memory: A process model. Psychologische Beiträge,
44, 303”“318.
Kliegel, M., Martin, M., McDaniel, M.A., Einstein, G. O., & Moor,
C. (2007). Realizing complex delayed intentions in young and
old adults: The role of planning aids. Memory & Cognition,
35, 1735-1746.
Kliegel, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2008). Prospective
memory: Cognitive, neuroscience, developmental and applied
perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Liu, L. L., & Park., D. C. (2004). Aging and medical adherence:
The use of automatic processes to achieve effortful things.
Psychology and Aging, 19, 318-325.
Loukopoulos, L. D., Dismukes, R. K., & Barshi, I. (2009). The
multitasking myth: Handling complexity in real-world
operations. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Ashgate.
Marsh, R. L., & Hicks, J. L. (1998). Event-based prospective
memory and executive control of working memory. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
24, 336-349.
Marsh, R. L., Hicks, J. L., & Cook, G. I. (2005). On the relationship
between effort toward an ongoing task and cue detection in
event-based prospective memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 31, 68-75.
Marsh., R. L., Hicks, J. L., & Cook., G. I. (2006). Task interference
from prospective memory covaries with contextual associations
of fulfilling them. Memory & Cognition, 34, 1037-1045.
Martin, M., Kliegel, M., & McDaniel, M. A. (2003). The
involvement of executive functions in prospective memory
performance of adults. International Journal of Psychology,
38, 195-206.
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2000). Strategic and automatic
processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess
framework. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 127-144.
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007). Prospective memory:
An overview and synthesis of an emerging field. London: Sage.
McDaniel, M. A., Guynn, M. J., Einstein, G. O., & Breneiser, J.
E. (2004). Cue focused and automatic-associative processes
in prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Learning. Memory and Cognition, 30, 605-614.
Meacham, J. A., & Leiman. B. (1982). Remembering to perform
future actions. In U. Neisser (Ed.), Memory observed:
Remembering in natural contexts (pp. 327-336). San Francisco:
Freeman.
Norman, W., & Shallice, T. (1983). Attention to action. In R. J.
Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness
and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory, Vol. 3
(pp. 1-18). New York: Plenum Press.
Roediger, H.L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test enhanced
learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention.
Psychological Science, 17, 249”“255.
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, plans goals and
understanding: An enquiry into human knowledge structures.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sellen, A. J., Louie, G., Harris, J. E., & Wilkins, A. J. (1997). What
brings intentions to mind? An in situ study of prospective
memory. Memory, 5, 483”“507.
Shallice, T., & Burgess, P. (1991). Deficits in strategy application
following frontal lobe damage in man. Brain, 114, 727-741.
Smith, R. E. (2003). The cost of remembering to remember in eventbased
prospective memory: Investigating the capacity demands
of delayed intention performance. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 29, 357-361.
Smith, R. E., & Bayen, U. J. (2004). A multinomial model of
event-based prospective memory. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 756-777.
Ward, H., Shum, D., McKinlay, L., Baker-Tweney, S., & Wallace,
G. (2005). Development of prospective memory: Tasks based
on the prefrontal-lobe model. Child Neuropsychology, 11,
527-549.
West, R. L. (1996) An application of prefrontal cortex theory to
cognitive aging. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 272-292.
Zimmermann, T. & Meier, B. (2010). The effect of implementation
intentions on prospective memory performance across the
lifespan. Applied Cognitive Pshychology, 24, 645-658.
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Published
2014-07-21
How to Cite
Matos, P., & Albuquerque, P. B. (2014). Explanatory Models of Prospective Memory:: A Theoretical Review. Psicologia: Teoria E Pesquisa, 30(2), 189–196. Retrieved from https://periodicos.unb.br/index.php/revistaptp/article/view/17639
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