Prejudice against Homosexuals and Social Representations of Homosexuality of Catholic and Evangelic Seminarians
Keywords:
Prejudice, Homophobia, Social representationsAbstract
This study analyzes the relationship between prejudice against homosexuals and social representations about homosexuality. Participants were 374 theology students (167 catholic and 207 evangelic) who individually answered a questionnaire about beliefs and attitudes toward homosexuals. Results allowed to identify two forms of prejudice: Subtle and blatant. The subtle prejudice is related to biological and psychosocial representations about homosexuality and to the disbelief in an ethical and moral nature of homosexuality. The blatant prejudice is related with the disbelief in a biological and psychosocial nature as well as with ethical and moral representations about homosexuality. In the discussion it is argued that social representations about the nature of minority groups can form the basis of prejudice and discrimination.
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References
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American Psychological Association. (1975). Minutes of the council of representatives. American Psychologist, 30(6), 620-651.
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2006). Psychological essentialism and stereotype endorsement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 228-235.
Bullough, V. L. (1974). Homosexuality and the medical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 1(1), 99-110.
Camino, L. (1998). Direitos humanos e psicologia. Em Comissão de Direitos Humanos do Conselho Federal de Psicologia (Ed.), Psicologia, ética e direitos humanos (pp. 39-63). Brasília: Conselho Federal de Psicologia.
Camino, L., & Pereira, C. (2000). O papel da psicologia na construção dos direitos humanos: Análise das teorias e práticas psicológicas na discriminação ao homossexualismo. Perfil, 13(13), 49-69.
Conselho Federal de Psicologia. (1999). Resolução número 1/1999: Normas de atuação para os psicólogos em relação à questão da orientação sexual. Brasília: Conselho Federal de Psicologia.
Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O’Brien, L. T. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 359-378.
Crawford, I., McLeod, A., Zamboni, B. D., & Jordan, M. B. (1999). Psychologists’ attitudes toward gay and lesbian parenting. The American Psychological Association, 4, 394-401.
Deschamps, J. C., Vala, J., Marinho, C., Lopes, R. C., & Cabecinhas, R. (2005). Intergroup relations, racism and attribution of natural and cultural traits. Psicología Política, 30(1), 27-39.
Doise, W., Clémence, A., & Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. (1993). The quantitative analysis of social representations. Hempel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Faria, M. R.G. V. de, Leite, T. V., Torres, A. R. R., & Bittar, M. M.. (2006). Influência dos ideais democráticos na discriminação contra portadores do HIV. Revista de Psicologia da UnC, Concordia - SC, 1,1-11.
Frank, D. J., & McEneaney, E. H. (1999). The individualization of society and the liberalization of states policies on same-sex sexual relations, 1984-1995. Social Forces, 77(3), 911-944.
Freud, S. (1905/1962). Three essays on the theory of sexuality translation. Em J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 136-244). London: Hogarth.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. Em J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). San Diego: Academic Press.
Greenberg, D. F., & Bystryn, M. (1982). Christian intolerance of homosexuality. American Journal of Sociology, 88, 515-548.
Haddock, G., Zanna, M. P., & Esses, V. M. (1993). Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65 (6), 1105-1118.
Haslam, N., Bastian, B., & Bissett, M. (2004). Essentialist beliefs about personality and their implications. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(12), 1661-1673.
Haslam, N., & Levy, S. R. (2006). Essentialist beliefs about homosexuality: Structure and implications for prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(4), 471-485.
Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2000). Essentialist beliefs about social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39(1), 113-127.
Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2002). Are essentialist beliefs associated with prejudice? British Journal of Social Psychology, 41(1), 87.
Hegarty, P. (2002). “It’s not a choice, it’s the way we’re built:” Symbolic beliefs about sexual orientation in the United States and in Britain. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 12(1), 1-14.
Hegarty, P., & Pratto, F. (2001). Sexual orientation beliefs: Their relationship to antigay attitudes and biological determinist arguments. Journal of Homosexuality, 41(1), 121-135.
Jayaratne, T. E., Ybarra, O., Sheldon, J. P., Brown, T. N., Feldbaum, M., & Pfeffer, C. A. (2006). White Americans’ genetic lay theories of race differences and sexual orientation: Their relationship with prejudice toward blacks, and gay men and lesbians. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(1), 77-94.
Jost, J. T. (1992). Social representations and the philosophy of science: Belief in ontological realism as objectification. Papers on Social Representations, 1(2-3), 116-124.
Katz, I., & Hass, R. G. (1988). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(6), 893-905.
Lacerda, M., Pereira, C., & Camino, L. (2002). Um estudo sobre as formas de preconceito contra homossexuais na perspectiva das representações sociais. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 15(1), 165-178.
Leyens, J.-P., Paladino, P. M., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez-Perez, A., & Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(2), 186-197.
McConahay, J. B., Hardee, B. B., & Batts, V. (1981). Has racism declined in America? It depends on who is asking and what is asked. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25(4), 563-579.
Medin, D., & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. Em S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 183-196). New York: Cambridge Academic Press.
Meertens, R. W., & Pettigrew, T. F. (1997). Is subtle prejudice really prejudice. Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(1), 54-71.
Melton, G. B. (1989). Public policy and private prejudice: Psychology and law on gay rights. American Psychologist, 44(6), 933-940.
Moradi, B., van den Berg, J. J., & Epting, F. R. (2006). Intrapersonal and interpersonal manifestations of antilesbian and gay prejudice: An application of personal construct theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 53(1), 57-66.
Moscovici, S. (1969/1976). La psychanalyse, son image et son public. Paris: PUF.
Moscovici, S., & Hewstone, M. (1983). Social representations and social explanations: From the “naive” to the “amateur” scientist. Em M. Hewstone (Ed.), Attribution theory: Social and functional extensions (pp. 98-125). Oxford: Blackwell.
Moscovici, S., & Pérez, J. A. (1997). Prejudice and social representations. Papers on Social Representations, 6(1), 27-36.
Pereira, C., Torres, A. R. R., & Pereira, A. (2003). Preconceito contra prostitutas e representações sociais da prostituição em estudantes de teologia católicos e evangélicos. Em M. E. Lima & M. E. Pereira (Eds.), Estereótipos, preconceito e discriminação: perspectivas teóricas e metodológicas (pp. 209-234). Salvador: EDUFBA.
Pereira, C., Vala, J., & Leyens, J-P. (2009). From infra-humanization to discrimination: The mediation of symbolic threat needs egalitarian norms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 336”“344.
Pérez, J. A., Moscovici, S., & Chulvi, B. (2002). Natura y cultura como principio de clasificación social. Anclaje de representaciones sociales sobre minorías étnicas. Revista de Psicología Social, 17(1), 51-67.
Pettigrew, T. F., Jackson, J. S., Brika, J. B., Lemaine, G., Meertens, R. W., Wagner, U., & Zick, A. (1998). Outgroup prejudice in Western Europe. European Review of Social Psychology, 8, 241-273.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (1995). Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25(1), 57-75.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (2001). In defense of the subtle prejudice concept: A retort. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(3), 299-309.
Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., & Congdon, R. (2005). HLM 6.02a: hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood: Scientific Software International.
Rothbart, M., & Taylor, M. (1992). Category labels and social reality: Do we view social categories as natural kinds? Em G. Semin & K. Fiedler (Eds.), Language, interaction and social cognition (pp. 11-36). Newbury Park: Sage.
Sears, D. O., & Henry, P. J. (2003). The origins of symbolic racism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 259-275.
Torres, A. R. R., & Faria, M. R. G. V. de (2008). Creencia en el Mundo Justo y Prejuicio: homosexuales portadores de VIH/SID. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 42(3), 570-579.
Vala, J., Brito, R., & Lopes, D. (1999). Expressões dos racismos em Portugal. Lisboa: Instituto de Ciências Sociais.
Vala, J., Lopes, D., Lima, M. E., & Brito, R. (2002). Cultural differences and heteroethnicization in Portugal: The perceptions of White and Black people. Portuguese Journal of Social Science, 1(2), 111-128.
Ward, J. H. (1963). Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective function. Journal of American Statistical Association, 58, 236-244.
American Psychological Association. (1975). Minutes of the council of representatives. American Psychologist, 30(6), 620-651.
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2006). Psychological essentialism and stereotype endorsement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 228-235.
Bullough, V. L. (1974). Homosexuality and the medical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 1(1), 99-110.
Camino, L. (1998). Direitos humanos e psicologia. Em Comissão de Direitos Humanos do Conselho Federal de Psicologia (Ed.), Psicologia, ética e direitos humanos (pp. 39-63). Brasília: Conselho Federal de Psicologia.
Camino, L., & Pereira, C. (2000). O papel da psicologia na construção dos direitos humanos: Análise das teorias e práticas psicológicas na discriminação ao homossexualismo. Perfil, 13(13), 49-69.
Conselho Federal de Psicologia. (1999). Resolução número 1/1999: Normas de atuação para os psicólogos em relação à questão da orientação sexual. Brasília: Conselho Federal de Psicologia.
Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O’Brien, L. T. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 359-378.
Crawford, I., McLeod, A., Zamboni, B. D., & Jordan, M. B. (1999). Psychologists’ attitudes toward gay and lesbian parenting. The American Psychological Association, 4, 394-401.
Deschamps, J. C., Vala, J., Marinho, C., Lopes, R. C., & Cabecinhas, R. (2005). Intergroup relations, racism and attribution of natural and cultural traits. Psicología Política, 30(1), 27-39.
Doise, W., Clémence, A., & Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. (1993). The quantitative analysis of social representations. Hempel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Faria, M. R.G. V. de, Leite, T. V., Torres, A. R. R., & Bittar, M. M.. (2006). Influência dos ideais democráticos na discriminação contra portadores do HIV. Revista de Psicologia da UnC, Concordia - SC, 1,1-11.
Frank, D. J., & McEneaney, E. H. (1999). The individualization of society and the liberalization of states policies on same-sex sexual relations, 1984-1995. Social Forces, 77(3), 911-944.
Freud, S. (1905/1962). Three essays on the theory of sexuality translation. Em J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 136-244). London: Hogarth.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. Em J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). San Diego: Academic Press.
Greenberg, D. F., & Bystryn, M. (1982). Christian intolerance of homosexuality. American Journal of Sociology, 88, 515-548.
Haddock, G., Zanna, M. P., & Esses, V. M. (1993). Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65 (6), 1105-1118.
Haslam, N., Bastian, B., & Bissett, M. (2004). Essentialist beliefs about personality and their implications. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(12), 1661-1673.
Haslam, N., & Levy, S. R. (2006). Essentialist beliefs about homosexuality: Structure and implications for prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(4), 471-485.
Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2000). Essentialist beliefs about social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39(1), 113-127.
Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2002). Are essentialist beliefs associated with prejudice? British Journal of Social Psychology, 41(1), 87.
Hegarty, P. (2002). “It’s not a choice, it’s the way we’re built:” Symbolic beliefs about sexual orientation in the United States and in Britain. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 12(1), 1-14.
Hegarty, P., & Pratto, F. (2001). Sexual orientation beliefs: Their relationship to antigay attitudes and biological determinist arguments. Journal of Homosexuality, 41(1), 121-135.
Jayaratne, T. E., Ybarra, O., Sheldon, J. P., Brown, T. N., Feldbaum, M., & Pfeffer, C. A. (2006). White Americans’ genetic lay theories of race differences and sexual orientation: Their relationship with prejudice toward blacks, and gay men and lesbians. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(1), 77-94.
Jost, J. T. (1992). Social representations and the philosophy of science: Belief in ontological realism as objectification. Papers on Social Representations, 1(2-3), 116-124.
Katz, I., & Hass, R. G. (1988). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(6), 893-905.
Lacerda, M., Pereira, C., & Camino, L. (2002). Um estudo sobre as formas de preconceito contra homossexuais na perspectiva das representações sociais. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 15(1), 165-178.
Leyens, J.-P., Paladino, P. M., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez-Perez, A., & Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(2), 186-197.
McConahay, J. B., Hardee, B. B., & Batts, V. (1981). Has racism declined in America? It depends on who is asking and what is asked. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25(4), 563-579.
Medin, D., & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. Em S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 183-196). New York: Cambridge Academic Press.
Meertens, R. W., & Pettigrew, T. F. (1997). Is subtle prejudice really prejudice. Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(1), 54-71.
Melton, G. B. (1989). Public policy and private prejudice: Psychology and law on gay rights. American Psychologist, 44(6), 933-940.
Moradi, B., van den Berg, J. J., & Epting, F. R. (2006). Intrapersonal and interpersonal manifestations of antilesbian and gay prejudice: An application of personal construct theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 53(1), 57-66.
Moscovici, S. (1969/1976). La psychanalyse, son image et son public. Paris: PUF.
Moscovici, S., & Hewstone, M. (1983). Social representations and social explanations: From the “naive” to the “amateur” scientist. Em M. Hewstone (Ed.), Attribution theory: Social and functional extensions (pp. 98-125). Oxford: Blackwell.
Moscovici, S., & Pérez, J. A. (1997). Prejudice and social representations. Papers on Social Representations, 6(1), 27-36.
Pereira, C., Torres, A. R. R., & Pereira, A. (2003). Preconceito contra prostitutas e representações sociais da prostituição em estudantes de teologia católicos e evangélicos. Em M. E. Lima & M. E. Pereira (Eds.), Estereótipos, preconceito e discriminação: perspectivas teóricas e metodológicas (pp. 209-234). Salvador: EDUFBA.
Pereira, C., Vala, J., & Leyens, J-P. (2009). From infra-humanization to discrimination: The mediation of symbolic threat needs egalitarian norms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 336”“344.
Pérez, J. A., Moscovici, S., & Chulvi, B. (2002). Natura y cultura como principio de clasificación social. Anclaje de representaciones sociales sobre minorías étnicas. Revista de Psicología Social, 17(1), 51-67.
Pettigrew, T. F., Jackson, J. S., Brika, J. B., Lemaine, G., Meertens, R. W., Wagner, U., & Zick, A. (1998). Outgroup prejudice in Western Europe. European Review of Social Psychology, 8, 241-273.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (1995). Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25(1), 57-75.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (2001). In defense of the subtle prejudice concept: A retort. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(3), 299-309.
Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., & Congdon, R. (2005). HLM 6.02a: hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood: Scientific Software International.
Rothbart, M., & Taylor, M. (1992). Category labels and social reality: Do we view social categories as natural kinds? Em G. Semin & K. Fiedler (Eds.), Language, interaction and social cognition (pp. 11-36). Newbury Park: Sage.
Sears, D. O., & Henry, P. J. (2003). The origins of symbolic racism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 259-275.
Torres, A. R. R., & Faria, M. R. G. V. de (2008). Creencia en el Mundo Justo y Prejuicio: homosexuales portadores de VIH/SID. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 42(3), 570-579.
Vala, J., Brito, R., & Lopes, D. (1999). Expressões dos racismos em Portugal. Lisboa: Instituto de Ciências Sociais.
Vala, J., Lopes, D., Lima, M. E., & Brito, R. (2002). Cultural differences and heteroethnicization in Portugal: The perceptions of White and Black people. Portuguese Journal of Social Science, 1(2), 111-128.
Ward, J. H. (1963). Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective function. Journal of American Statistical Association, 58, 236-244.
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Published
2011-03-29
How to Cite
Pereira, C., Rosas Torres, A. R., Pereira, A., & Campos Falcão, L. (2011). Prejudice against Homosexuals and Social Representations of Homosexuality of Catholic and Evangelic Seminarians. Psicologia: Teoria E Pesquisa, 27(1), 73–82. Retrieved from https://periodicos.unb.br/index.php/revistaptp/article/view/18280
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Estudos Empíricos
