A Personalidade na Tomada de Decisão com o Iowa Gambling Task
Uma Revisão Integrativa
Palavras-chave:
Tomada de decisão, Comportamento de risco, Personalidade, Impulsividade, Personalidade antissocialResumo
O Iowa GamblingTask (IGT) apesar de amplamente utilizado na avaliação da tomada de decisão sobre incerteza, apresenta uma grande variabilidade no desempenho nos grupos experimentais e de controlo. Pretende-se com este trabalho proceder a uma revisão da literatura que relaciona a personalidade com o desempenho no IGT, de modo a clarificar o papel dessa variável na variância observada nessa tarefa. As conclusões evidenciam, como variáveis associadas frequentemente com o mau desempenho no IGT, a dimensão neuroticismo, a impulsividade e no que respeita à psicopatia e dependência de substâncias o fator associado à antissociabilidade. Finalmente, à luz destes resultados, são sugeridas algumas orientações para a pesquisa na área.
Downloads
Referências
Achenbach, T. M. (Ed.). (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4-18, YSR and TRF profiles. Burlington: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4 ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Ba, Y., Zhang, W., Peng, Q., Salvendy, G., & Crundall, D. (2016). Risk-taking on the road and in the mind: Behavioural and neural patterns of decision making between risky and safe drivers. Ergonomics,59(1), 27-38. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2015.1056236
Bagneux, V., Font, H., & Bollon, T. (2013). Incidental emotions associated with uncertainty appraisals impair decisions in the Iowa Gambling Task. Motivation and Emotion, 37(4), 818”“827. doi: 10.1007/s11031-013-9346-5
Balodis, I. M., MacDonald, T. K., & Olmstead, M. C. (2006). Instructional cues modify performance on the Iowa Gambling Task. Brain and Cognition, 60(2), 109-117. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.05.007
Barrash, J., Tranel, D., & Anderson, S. W. (2000). Acquired personality disturbances asssociated with bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal region. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18(3), 355-381. doi:10.1207/S1532694205Barrash
Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50(1-3), 7-15. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3
Bechara, A., & Damasio, H. (2002). Decision-making and addiction (part I): Impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. Neuropsychologia, 40(10), 1675-1689. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00015-5
Bechara, A., Dolan, S., Denburg, N., Hindes, A., Anderson, S. W., & Nathan, P. E. (2001). Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers. Neuropsychologia, 39(4), 376-389. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(00)00136-6
Bechara, A., & Martin, E. M. (2004). Impaired decision making related to working memory deficits in individuals with substance addictions. Neuropsychology, 18(1), 152-162. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.1.152
Benning, S. D., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Psychopathy, startle blink modulation, and electrodermal reactivity in twin men. Psychophysiology, 42(6), 753-762. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00353.x
Blair, R. J. R., Colledge, E., & Mitchell, D. (2001). Somatic markers and response reversal: Is there orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in boys with psychopathic tendencies? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(6), 499-511. doi:10.1023/A:1012277125119
Blair, R. J. R., Mitchell, D., & Blair, K. (2005). The psychopath: Emotion and the brain. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Buelow, M. T., & Suhr, J. A. (2013). Personality characteristics and state mood influence individual deck selections on the Iowa Gambling Task. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(5), 593-597. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.019
Brand, M., & Altstötter-Gleich, C. (2008). Personality and decision-making in laboratory gambling tasks ”“ Evidence for a relationship between deciding advantageously under risk conditions and perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(3), 226-231. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.04.003
Brevers, D.,Bechara, A., Cleeremans, A., Kornreich, C.,Verbanck, P., & Noël, X. (2014). Impaired decision-making under risk in individuals with alcohol dependence. Alcoholism-Clinical and Experimental Research, 38(7), 1924-1931.doi:10.1111/acer.12447
Brinkley, C. A., Schmitt, W. A., Smith, S. S., & Newman, J. P. (2001). Construct validation of a self-report psychopathy scale: Does Levenson’s self-report psychopathy scale measure the same constructs as Hare’s psychopathy checklist-revised? Personality and Individual Differences, 31(7), 1021-1038. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00178-1
Brown, T. G., Ouimet, M. C., Eldeb, M., Tremblay, J., Vingilis, E., Nadeau, L., Pruessner, J., & Bechara, A. (2016). Personality, executive control, and neurobiological characteristics associated with different forms of risky driving. PloS One,11(2), e0150227. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150227
Cackowski, S.,Reitz, A,C., Ende, G., Kleindienst, N., Bohus, M.,Schmahl, C.,& Krause-Utz, A. (2014). Impact of stress on different components of impulsivity in borderline personality disorder. Psychological Medicine, 44(15), 3329-3340. doi:10.1017/S0033291714000427
Carre, J. R., & Jones, D. N. (2016). The impact of social support and coercion salience on Dark Triad decision making. Personality and Individual Differences, 94, 92-95. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.006
Carver, C. S. (2004). Negative affects deriving from the behavioral approach system. Emotion, 4(1), 3-22. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.4.1.3
Cooke, D. J., & Michie, C. (1997). An item response theory evaluation of Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist. Psychological Assessment, 9(1), 2”“ 13. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.1.3
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (Eds.). (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Crone, E. A., Vendel, I., & van der Molen, M. W. (2003). Decisionmaking in disinhibited adolescents and adults: Insensitivity to future consequences or driven by immediate reward? Personality and Individual Differences, 35(7), 1625-1641. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00386-0
Damásio, A. R. (1995). O erro de Descartes. Emoção, razão e cérebro humano (D. Vicente & G. Segurado, Trans.). Mem Martins: Publicações Europa-América.
Davis, C., Patte, K., Tweed, S., & Curtis, C. (2007). Personality traits associated with decision-making deficits. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(2), 279-290. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.07.006
Dean, A. C., Altstein, L. L., Berman, M. E., Constans, J. I., Sugar, C. A., & McCloskey, M. S. (2013). Secondary psychopathy, but not primary psychopathy, is associated with risky decisionmaking in noninstitutionalized young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(2), 272-277. doi:10.1016/j. paid.2012.09.009
Denburg, N., Weller, J., Yamada, T., Shivapour, D., Kaup, A., LaLoggia, A., . . . Bechara, A. (2009). Poor decision making among older adults is related to elevated levels of neuroticism. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37(2), 164-172. doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9094-7
de Ridder, D., Kroese, F., Adriaanse, M., & Evers, C. (2014). Always gamble on an empty stomach: Hunger is associated with advantageous decision making. PLoS One, 9(10), e111081. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111081
Derntl, B., Pintzinger, N., Kryspin-Exner, I., & Schöpf , V. (2014). The impact of sex hormone concentrations on decision-making in females and males. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8(352), 1-11.
doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00352
Dolan, M., & Fullam, R. (2006). Face affect recognition deficits in personality disordered offenders: Association with psychopathy. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1563-1569. doi:10.1017/S0033291706008634
Evans, K. L., & Hampson, E. (2014). Does risk-taking mediate the relationship between testosterone and decision-making on the Iowa Gambling Task? Personality and Individual Differences, 61(62), 57-62. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.011
Eysenck, H., & Eysenck, S. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Inventory. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
Ferrigan, M. M., Valentiner, D. P., & Berman, M. E. (2000). Psychopathy dimensions and awareness of negative and positive consequences of aggressive behaviour in a nonforensic sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3), 527-538. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00118-X
Filho, N. H., Teixeira, M. A., & Martins de Almeida, R. M. (2014). Estrutura fatorial da escala Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R): Uma revisão sistemática. Avaliação Psicológica, 13(2), 247-256. Retirado de http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1677-04712014000200012&lng=pt&tlng=pt.
Franken, I. A., Muris, P., & Rassin, E. (2005). Psychometric properties of the Dutch BIS/BAS Scales. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 27(1), 25-30. doi:10.1007/s10862-005-3262-2
Franken, I. H. A., & Muris, P. (2005). Individual differences in decision-making. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(5), 991-998. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.04.004
Galang, A. J., Castelo, V. L., Santos III, L. C., Perlas, C. M., & Angeles, M. A. (in press). Investigating the prosocial psychopath model of the creative personality: Evidence from traits and psychophysiology. Personality and Individual Differences. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.081
Gao, Y., & Raine, A. (2010). Successful and unsuccessful psychopaths: A neurobiological model. Behavioural Sciences and the Law, 28, 194-210. doi:10.1002/bsl.924
Glicksohn, J., & Zilberman, N. (2010). Gambling on individual differences in decision making. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(5), 557-562. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.12.006
Goudriaan, A. E., Grekin, E. R., & Sher, K. J. (2007). Decision making and binge drinking: A longitudinal study. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 31(6), 928-938. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00378.x
Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversionextraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249-266. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0
Haaland, V. O., & Landro, N. I. (2007). Decision making as measured with the Iowa Gambling Task in patients with borderline personality disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(4), 699-703. doi:10.1017/S1355617707070890
Hare, R. D. (1991). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist ”” Revised. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.
Hare, R. D. (2003). Manual for the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (2nd ed.).Toronto, ON, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217246. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091452
He, Z., Cassaday, H., Howard, R., Khalifa, N., & Bonardi, C. (2011). Impaired Pavlovian conditioned inhibition in offenders with personality disorders. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(12), 2334-2351. doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.616933
Heaven, P. C. L., Newbury, K., & Mak, A. (2004). The impact of adolescent and parental characteristics on adolescent levels of delinquency and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(1), 173-185. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00077-1
Hooper, C. J., Luciana, M., Wahlstrom, D., Conklin, H. M., & Yarger, R. S. (2008). Personality correlates of Iowa Gambling Task performance in healthy adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(3), 598-609. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.09.021
Hughe, M. A., Dolan, M. C., Trueblood, J. S., & Stout, J. C. (2015). Psychopathic personality traits and Iowa Gambling Task performance in incarcerated offenders. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 22(1), 134-144. doi:10.1080/13218719.2014.919689
Hulka, L. M.,Vonmoos, M., Preller, K. H., Baumgartner, M. R., Seifritz, E., Gamma, A., & Quednow, B. B. (2015). Changes in cocaine consumption are associated with fluctuations in self-reported impulsivity and gambling decision-making. Psychological Medicine, 45(14), 3097-3110. doi:10.1017/S0033291715001063
Iannello, P., Biassoni, F., Nelli, B., Zugno, E., & Colombo, B. (2015). The influence of menstrual cycle and impulsivity on risk-taking behavior. Neuropsychological Trends, 17,47-52. doi:10.7358/neur-2015-017-iann
Icellioglu, S., & Ozden, M. S. (2012). Personality effect on decisionmaking among normal university students and comparing Gambling Task performances of normal university students with a group of normal adults. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46(0), 1010-1014. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.240
John, O., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2 ed., pp. 102-138). New York: Guilford.
Kertzman, S., Kagan, A.,Vainder, M., Lapidus, R., & Weizman, A. (2013). Interactions between risky decisions, impulsiveness and smoking in young tattooed women. BMC Psychiatry,13(278),1-12 doi:10.1186/1471-244X-13-278
Körner, N., Schmidt, P., & Soyka, M. (2015). Decision making and impulsiveness in abstinentalcohol-dependent people and healthy individuals: A neuropsychological examination. Substance Abuse Treament, Prevency and Policy, 10(24), 1-10 doi:10.1186/s13011-015-0020-7
Le Bas, G. A., Hughes, M. A., & Stout, J. C. (2015). Utility of selfreport and performance-based measures of risk for predicting driving behavior in young people. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 184-188. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.05.034
LeGris, J., Links, P. S., van Reekum, R., Tannock, R., & Toplak, M. (2012). Executive function and suicidal risk in women with borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Research, 196(1), 101-108. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.10.008
LeGris, J. R. N., Toplak, M., C., & Links, P. S. (2014). Affective decision making in women with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 28(5), 698-719. doi:10.1521/pedi_2014_28_140
Levenson, M. R. (1992). Rethinking psychopathy. Theory & Psychology, 2(1), 51-71. doi:10.1177/0959354392021003
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Andrews, B. P. (1996). Development and preliminary validation of a self-report measure of psychopathic personality traits in noncriminal population. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(3), 488-524. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6603_3
Lorian, C. N., Mahoney, A., & Grisham, J. R. (2012). Playing it safe: An examination of risk-avoidance in an anxious treatmentseeking sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 141(1), 63-71. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.02.021
Lösel, F., & Schmucker, M. (2004). Psychopathy, risk taking, and attention: A differentiated test of the somatic marker hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(4), 522-529. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.113.4.522
Lovallo, W. R., Enoch, M. A.,Yechiam, E., Glahn, D. C., Acheson, A., Sorocco, K. H.,… Goldman, D. (2014). Differential impact of serotonin transporter activity on temperament and behavior in persons with a family history of alcoholism in the Oklahoma family health patterns project. Alcoholism-Clinical and Experimental Research, 38(6), 1575-1581. doi:10.1111/acer.12412
Mahmut, M. K., Homewood, J., & Stevenson, R. J. (2008). The characteristics of non-criminals with high psychopathy traits: Are they similar to criminal psychopaths? Journal of Research in Personality, 42(3), 679-692. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.09.002
Mardaga, S., & Hansenne, M. (2015). Personality and skin conductance responses to reward and punishment. Influence on the Iowa Gambling Task performance. Journal of Individual Differences, 33, 17-23.doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000057
Miranda Jr, R., MacKillop, J., Meyerson, L. A., Justus, A., & Lovallo, W. R. (2009). Influence of antisocial and psychopathic traits on decision-making biases in alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33(5), 817-825. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.00901.x
Mussel, P., Reiter, A. M., Osinsky, R., & Hewig, J. (2015). State- and trait-greed, its impact on risky decision-making and underlying neural mechanisms. Social Neuroscience, 10(2), 126-134. doi:10.1080/17470919.2014.965340
Nguyen, C. M., Barrash, J., Koenigs, A. L., Bechara A.,Tranel D.,Denburg, N. L. (2013). Decision-making deficits in normal elderly persons associated with executive personality disturbances. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(11), 1811-1819.doi:10.1017/S1041610213001270
Nygren, T. E. (1998). Reacting to perceived high- and low-risk win”“lose opportunities in a risky decision-making task: Is it framing or affect or both? Motivation and Emotion, 22(1), 73-98. doi:10.1023/a:1023096709380
Palomo, T., Beninger, R., Kostrzewa, R., & Archer, T. (2008). Focusing on symptoms rather than diagnoses in brain dysfunction: Conscious and nonconscious expression in impulsiveness and decision-making. Neurotoxicity Research, 14(1), 1-20. doi:10.1007/bf03033572
Patrick, C. J., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1993). Emotion in the criminal psychopath: Startle reflex modulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 82-92. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.82
Penolazzi, B., Leone, L., & Russo, P. M. (2013). Individual differences and decision making: When the lure effect of gain is a matter of size. PLoS One, 8(3), e58946. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058946
Preston, S. D., Buchanan, T. W., Stansfield, R. B., & Bechara, A. (2007). Effects of anticipatory stress on decision making in a gambling task. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121(2), 257-263. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.121.2.257
Reavis, R., & Overman, W. (2001). Adult sex differences on a decision-making task previously shown to depend on the orbital prefrontal cortex. Behavioral Neuroscience, 115(1), 196-206. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.115.1.196
Ross, S., Benning, S., & Adams, Z. (2007). Symptoms of executive dysfunction are endemic to secondary psychopathy: An examination in criminal offenders and noninstitutionalized young adults. Journal of Personality Disorders 21(4), 384-399. doi:10.1521/pedi.2007.21.4.384
Sharma, L., Markon, K. E., & Clark, L. A. (2014). Toward a theory of distinct types of “impulsive” behaviors: A meta-analysis of self-report and behavioral measures. Psychological Bulletin, 140(2),374-408. doi:10.1037/a0034418
Steingroever, H., Wetzels, R., Horstmann, A., Neumann, J., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2013). Performance of healthy participants on the Iowa Gambling Task. Psychological Assessment, 25(1), 180-193. doi:10.1037/a0029929
Stevens, L.,Goudriaan, A. E.,Verdejo-Garcia, A.,Dom, G., Roeyers, H., & Vanderplasschen, W. (2015). Impulsive choice predicts short-term relapse in substance-dependent individuals attending an in-patient detoxification programme. Psychological Medicine, 45(10), 2083-2093. doi:10.1017/S003329171500001X
Takahashi, T.,Takagishi, H.,Nishinaka, H., Makino, T., &Fukui, H. (2014). Neuroeconomics of psychopathy: Risk taking in probability discounting of gain and loss predicts psychopathy. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 35(6), 510-517. Retirado de http://www.nel.edu/home.htm
Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(3), 260-264. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.008
Takano, Y., Takahashi, N., Tanaka, D., & Hironaka, N. (2010). Big losses lead to irrational decision-making in gambling situations: Relationship between deliberation and impulsivity. PLoS One, 5(2), 1-6. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009368
Taylor, J., & Lang, A. (2006). Psychopathy and substance use disorders. In C. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 495-511). Guilford Press: New York.
Upton, D. J., Bishara, A. J., Ahn, W. Y., & Stout, J. C. (2011). Propensity for risk taking and trait impulsivity in the Iowa Gambling Task. Personality and Individual Differences 50(4), 492-495. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.11.013
Ursache, A., & Raver, C. (2015). Iowa Gambling Task performance and executive function predict low-income urban preadolescents’ risky behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences, 79, 1-6. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.01.010
van den Bos, R., Houx, B. B., & Spruijt, B. M. (2006). The effect of reward magnitude differences on choosing disadvantageous decks in the Iowa Gambling Task. Biological Psychology, 71(2), 155-161. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.05.003
van Honk, J., Hermans, E. J., Putman, P., Montagne, B., & Schutter, D. J. L. G. (2002). Defective somatic markers in sub-clinical psychopathy. Neuroreport, 13(8), 1025-1027. Retirado de http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/pages/default.aspx
van Honk, J., Schutter, D. J., Hermans, E. J., Putman, P., Tuiten, A., & Koppeschaar, H. (2004). Testosterone shifts the balance between sensitivity for punishment and reward in healthy young women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29(7), 937-943. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2003.08.007
Vanman, E. J., Mejia, V. Y., Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Raine, A. (2003). Modification of the startle reflex in a community sample: Do one or two dimensions of psychopathy underlie emotional processing? Personality and Individual Differences, 35(8), 2007-2021. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00052-7
Vasconcelos, A., Sergeant, J., Corrêa, H., Mattos, P., & Malloy-Diniz, L. (2014). When self-report diverges from performance: The usage of BIS-11 along with neuropsychological tests. Psychiatry Research, 218(1-2), 236-243. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.03.002
Vassileva, J., Georgiev, S., Martin, E., Gonzalez, R., & Segala, L. (2011). Psychopathic heroin addicts are not uniformly impaired across neurocognitive domains of impulsivity. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 114(2-3), 194-200. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.09.021
Vassileva, J., Gonzalez, R., Bechara, A., & Martin, E. M. (2007). Are all drug addicts impulsive? Effects of antisociality and extent of multidrug use on cognitive and motor impulsivity. Addictive Behaviors, 32(12), 3071-3076. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.04.017
Walters, G. D. (2003). Predicting criminal justice outcomes with the Psychopathy Checklist and Life style Criminality Screening Form: A meta-analytic comparison. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 21(1), 89-102. doi:10.1002/bsl.519
Wang, S., Krajbich, I., Adolphs, R., & Tsuchiya, N. (2012). The role of risk aversion in non-conscious decision-making. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00050
Webb, C. A., DelDonno, S., & Killgore, W. D. S. (2014). The role of cognitive versus emotional intelligence in Iowa Gambling Task performance: What’s emotion got to do with it? Intelligence, 44, 112-119. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.03.008
Xu, S., Korczykowski, M., Zhu, S., Rao, H. (2013). Risk-taking and impulsive behaviors: A comparative assessment of three tasks. Social Behavior and Personality, 41(3), 477-486. doi:10.2224/sbp.2013.41.3.477
Yamamoto, D. J., Woo, C.-W., Wager, T. D., Regner, M. F., & Tanabe, J. (2015). Influence of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum on risk avoidance in addiction: A mediation analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 149, 10-17. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.12.026
Yang, Y., Zhong, X., Wu, D., Li, H., & Li, M. (2016). Positive association between trait impulsivity and high gambling-related cognitive biases among college students. Psychiatry Research, 243(30), 71-74. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.04.110
Young, S., Gudjonsson, G. H., Goodwin, E, J., Derek, P., & Robin, M. (2013). A validation of a computerised task of risk-taking and moral decision-making and its association with sensationseeking, impulsivity and sociomoral reasoning. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(8), 941-946. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.472
Zhang, L., Wang, K., Zhu, C., Yu, F., & Chen (2015). Trait anxiety has effect on decision making under ambiguity but not decision making under risk. PLoS One. 10(5), e0127189. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127189
Zimak, E. H., Suhr, J., & Bolinger, E. (2014). Psychophysiological and neuropsychological characteristics of non-incarcerated adult males with higher levels of psychopathic personality traits. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36(4), 542”“554. doi:10.1007/s10862-014-9430-5
