Women, gender and power among indigenous peoples of Portuguese Timor
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.4000/aa.2240Palavras-chave:
women, gender, power, marriage exchanges, Timor-LesteResumo
This essay examines the social position of women and the implications of gender representations among indigenous peoples in post-World War II Portuguese Timor. It is a bibliographic critique based on works of academic anthropology and of certain missionary and colonial administrative ethnographies published between the 1950s and 1980s. I argue that in general women occupied a relatively subaltern position in the collective dynamics of social reproduction. This results from the specificity of local social structures and from the separation of sex and gender. I attempt to elucidate an apparent contradiction: on the one hand, femaleness, as a gender classifying principle, is associated with superiority among many peoples in Timor-Leste and, on the other hand, women are often in subaltern positions regarding collective reproduction. I argue that the ways the female principle and the idea of fertility are ritually handled serve the purpose of producing and reproducing male dominance in the dynamics of collective social reproduction and the co-opting of women’s power of giving life.
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Referências
BARNES, Robert H. 1980. “Marriage, exchange and the meaning of corporations in Eastern Indonesia”. In: John L. Comaroff (ed.). The meaning of marriage payments. New York: Academic Press.
BRITO, Ervinia M. 2012. A proposta educacional da congregação canossiana em Timor- Leste. Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade de São Paulo.
CARSTEN, Janet & HUGH-JONES, Stephen. 1995. “Introduction”. In: ______. About the house: Lévi-Strauss and beyond. [S.l]: Cambridge University Press.
CRISTALIS, Irena & SCOTT, Catherine. 2005. Independent women: the story of women’s activism in East Timor. London: Ed. Catholic Institute for International Relations.
ERRINGTON, Shelly. 1990. “Recasting sex, gender and power: a theoretical and regional overview.” In: Jane Atkinson & Shelly Errington (eds.). Power and difference: gender in Island Southeast Asia. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
FERNANDES, Alexandre J. M. 2014a. Em searas do Timor Português: um estudo sobre as práticas de mediação da Diocese de Díli no período colonial (1949-1973). Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade de Brasília.
______. 2014b. Sobre os impactos dos colonizadores nas relações de gênero. Working Paper presented to the Research Seminars on the Condition of Women in Portuguese Timor.
FORMAN, Shepard. 1977. “Exchange and political hierarchy at the time of the European discoveries”. In: Karl L. Hutterer (ed.). Economic exchange and social interaction in Southeast Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. pp. 97-111.
FOX, James. 1980. “Introduction”. In: ______ (ed.). The flow of life: essays in Eastern Indonesia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 11-18.
FOX, James. 1996. “Introduction”. In: James Fox & Clifford Sather (eds.). Origins, ancestry and alliance: explorations in Austronesian ethonography. Canberra: ANU E-Press.pp. 1-18.
FRIEDBERG, Claudine. 1977. “La femme et le féminin chez les Bunaq du centre de Timor”. Archipel, 13:37-52.
______. 1989. “Social relations of territorial management in light of Bunaq farming rituals.” Bijdragen tot de Taal, Land en Volkenkunde Deel 145, 4. Rituals and Socio- Cosmic Order in Eastern Indonesian Societies. Part I Nusa Tenggara Timur. pp. 548-563.
GODELIER, Maurice. 1982. La production des grand homes. Paris: Librarie Arthéme Fayard.
GOODY, Jack. 1973. “Bridewealth and Dowry in Africa and Euroasia”. In: Jack Goody & Stanley J. Tambiah. Bridewealth and Dowry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
HICKS, David. 1984. A maternal religion: the role of women in Tetum myth and ritual. North Illinois University Press.
______. 2004. Tetum ghosts & kin: fertility and gender in East Timor. Long Grove: Waveland.
______. 2011. “A pesquisa etnográfica no Timor Português”. In: Kelly Silva & Lúcio Sousa (eds.). Ita maun alin: o livro do irmão mais novo. Afinidades antropológicas em torno de Timor-Leste. Lisbon: Colibri.
HOSKINS, J. 2004. “Slaves, brides and other ‘gifts’: resistance, marriage and rank in Eastern Indonesia”. Slavery & Abolition: a Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies, 25(2):90-107.
______. 2012. Biographical objects: how things tell the stories of people’s life. New York: Routledge.
KAMMEN, Douglas. 2012. “Queens of Timor”. Archipel, 84:149-173.
LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. 1983. The way of the masks. London: Jonathan Cape.
McKINNON, Susan. 1991. From a shattered sun: hierarchy, gender and alliance in the Tanimbar islands. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
NINER, Sara. 2012. “Barlake: an exploration of marriage practices and issues of women’s status in Timor-Leste”. Loca-Global: Identity, Security, Community, 11:138-153.
_______. 2017. Women and the politics of gender in Post-Conflict Timor-Leste. Between Heaven and Earth. New York: Routledge.
NOGUEIRA, Renata S. 2014. “A posição cambiável física e simbólica das mulheres: uma reflexão sobre poder, gênero e mulheres em Timor-Leste”. Working Paper presented to the Research Seminars on the Condition of Women in Portuguese Timor.
ORTNER, Sherry B. 1974. “Is female to male as nature to culture?” In: Michelle Z. Rosaldo & Louise Lamphere (eds.). Women, culture and society. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
RUBIN, Gayle. 1975. “Traffic in women: notes on the political economy of sex”. In: Reiter Rayna (ed.). Toward an anthropology of women. New York: Monthly Review Press.
SILVA, Kelly. 2015. “Marriage exchanges, colonial fantasies and the production of East Timor indigenous socialities in the 1970s Dili”. In: Leach et al. Understanding Timor- Leste. Díli: v. II, pp. 228-233.
______. 2018. “The ‘barlake war’: marriage exchanges, colonial fantasies and the production of East Timorese people in the 1970s Dili”. In: Ricardo Roque & Elizabeth Traube. (ed.). The colonial archive: crossing histories and ethnographies. London: Berghahn. In press.
STRATHERN, Marilyn. 1984. “Subject or object? Women and the circulation of valuables in Highlands New Guinea”. In: Renée Hirschon (ed.). Women and property, women as property. London: Croom Helm. pp. 159-175.
______. 1987. “Introduction”. In: ______. (ed.). Dealing with inequality: analysing gender relations in Melanesia and beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
______. 1988. The gender of the gift: problems with women and problems with society in Melanesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
TCHAILORO, Nuno R. 2016. Relijioza Sira Nia Luta ba Ukun Rasik. Dili: Mimeo.
THERIK, Tom. 2004. Wehali: the female land. Traditions of a Timorese cultural centre. Canberra: Pandanus Books & Australian National University.
TRAUBE, Elizabeth. 1987. Cosmology and social life: ritual exchange among the Mambai of East Timor. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
VAN WOUDEN, Franciscus Antonius E. 1968. Types of social structure in Eastern Indonesia. Haia: Martinus Nijhoff. Publicado originalmente em 1935.
BRITO, Ervinia M. 2012. A proposta educacional da congregação canossiana em Timor- Leste. Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade de São Paulo.
CARSTEN, Janet & HUGH-JONES, Stephen. 1995. “Introduction”. In: ______. About the house: Lévi-Strauss and beyond. [S.l]: Cambridge University Press.
CRISTALIS, Irena & SCOTT, Catherine. 2005. Independent women: the story of women’s activism in East Timor. London: Ed. Catholic Institute for International Relations.
ERRINGTON, Shelly. 1990. “Recasting sex, gender and power: a theoretical and regional overview.” In: Jane Atkinson & Shelly Errington (eds.). Power and difference: gender in Island Southeast Asia. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
FERNANDES, Alexandre J. M. 2014a. Em searas do Timor Português: um estudo sobre as práticas de mediação da Diocese de Díli no período colonial (1949-1973). Dissertação de mestrado, Universidade de Brasília.
______. 2014b. Sobre os impactos dos colonizadores nas relações de gênero. Working Paper presented to the Research Seminars on the Condition of Women in Portuguese Timor.
FORMAN, Shepard. 1977. “Exchange and political hierarchy at the time of the European discoveries”. In: Karl L. Hutterer (ed.). Economic exchange and social interaction in Southeast Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. pp. 97-111.
FOX, James. 1980. “Introduction”. In: ______ (ed.). The flow of life: essays in Eastern Indonesia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 11-18.
FOX, James. 1996. “Introduction”. In: James Fox & Clifford Sather (eds.). Origins, ancestry and alliance: explorations in Austronesian ethonography. Canberra: ANU E-Press.pp. 1-18.
FRIEDBERG, Claudine. 1977. “La femme et le féminin chez les Bunaq du centre de Timor”. Archipel, 13:37-52.
______. 1989. “Social relations of territorial management in light of Bunaq farming rituals.” Bijdragen tot de Taal, Land en Volkenkunde Deel 145, 4. Rituals and Socio- Cosmic Order in Eastern Indonesian Societies. Part I Nusa Tenggara Timur. pp. 548-563.
GODELIER, Maurice. 1982. La production des grand homes. Paris: Librarie Arthéme Fayard.
GOODY, Jack. 1973. “Bridewealth and Dowry in Africa and Euroasia”. In: Jack Goody & Stanley J. Tambiah. Bridewealth and Dowry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
HICKS, David. 1984. A maternal religion: the role of women in Tetum myth and ritual. North Illinois University Press.
______. 2004. Tetum ghosts & kin: fertility and gender in East Timor. Long Grove: Waveland.
______. 2011. “A pesquisa etnográfica no Timor Português”. In: Kelly Silva & Lúcio Sousa (eds.). Ita maun alin: o livro do irmão mais novo. Afinidades antropológicas em torno de Timor-Leste. Lisbon: Colibri.
HOSKINS, J. 2004. “Slaves, brides and other ‘gifts’: resistance, marriage and rank in Eastern Indonesia”. Slavery & Abolition: a Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies, 25(2):90-107.
______. 2012. Biographical objects: how things tell the stories of people’s life. New York: Routledge.
KAMMEN, Douglas. 2012. “Queens of Timor”. Archipel, 84:149-173.
LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. 1983. The way of the masks. London: Jonathan Cape.
McKINNON, Susan. 1991. From a shattered sun: hierarchy, gender and alliance in the Tanimbar islands. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
NINER, Sara. 2012. “Barlake: an exploration of marriage practices and issues of women’s status in Timor-Leste”. Loca-Global: Identity, Security, Community, 11:138-153.
_______. 2017. Women and the politics of gender in Post-Conflict Timor-Leste. Between Heaven and Earth. New York: Routledge.
NOGUEIRA, Renata S. 2014. “A posição cambiável física e simbólica das mulheres: uma reflexão sobre poder, gênero e mulheres em Timor-Leste”. Working Paper presented to the Research Seminars on the Condition of Women in Portuguese Timor.
ORTNER, Sherry B. 1974. “Is female to male as nature to culture?” In: Michelle Z. Rosaldo & Louise Lamphere (eds.). Women, culture and society. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
RUBIN, Gayle. 1975. “Traffic in women: notes on the political economy of sex”. In: Reiter Rayna (ed.). Toward an anthropology of women. New York: Monthly Review Press.
SILVA, Kelly. 2015. “Marriage exchanges, colonial fantasies and the production of East Timor indigenous socialities in the 1970s Dili”. In: Leach et al. Understanding Timor- Leste. Díli: v. II, pp. 228-233.
______. 2018. “The ‘barlake war’: marriage exchanges, colonial fantasies and the production of East Timorese people in the 1970s Dili”. In: Ricardo Roque & Elizabeth Traube. (ed.). The colonial archive: crossing histories and ethnographies. London: Berghahn. In press.
STRATHERN, Marilyn. 1984. “Subject or object? Women and the circulation of valuables in Highlands New Guinea”. In: Renée Hirschon (ed.). Women and property, women as property. London: Croom Helm. pp. 159-175.
______. 1987. “Introduction”. In: ______. (ed.). Dealing with inequality: analysing gender relations in Melanesia and beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
______. 1988. The gender of the gift: problems with women and problems with society in Melanesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
TCHAILORO, Nuno R. 2016. Relijioza Sira Nia Luta ba Ukun Rasik. Dili: Mimeo.
THERIK, Tom. 2004. Wehali: the female land. Traditions of a Timorese cultural centre. Canberra: Pandanus Books & Australian National University.
TRAUBE, Elizabeth. 1987. Cosmology and social life: ritual exchange among the Mambai of East Timor. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
VAN WOUDEN, Franciscus Antonius E. 1968. Types of social structure in Eastern Indonesia. Haia: Martinus Nijhoff. Publicado originalmente em 1935.
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2018-03-26
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da Silva, Kelly Cristiane. 2018. “Women, Gender and Power Among Indigenous Peoples of Portuguese Timor”. Anuário Antropológico 42 (2):183-205. https://doi.org/10.4000/aa.2240.
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